The Role of Reinforcement in Behaviorism

Reinforcement plays a fundamental role in learning and behavior within the framework of behaviorism, particularly in operant conditioning. It is the process by which a consequence immediately follows a behavior, increasing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the future. This principle is based on the idea that behaviors are learned through their consequences. Susan M. Schneider explains that if a behavior gets going and keeps going because of a consequence, that consequence is “a reinforcer.” If a behavior declines because of a consequence, that consequence is “a negative (a punisher)” (Schneider, 2012).

B.F. Skinner wrote:

“It is commonly said that a thing is reinforcing because it feels, looks, sounds, smells, or tastes good, but from the point of view of evolutionary theory a susceptibility to reinforcement is due to its survival value and not to any associated feelings” (Skinner, 1974, p. 52).

The power of reinforcement lies in its ability to create associations between behaviors and their outcomes. Through repeated pairings of a behavior and a reinforcing consequence, an individual learns that performing a specific action leads to a positive result. This learning process can be observed in various settings, from simple animal training to complex human behaviors. For example, a child who receives praise (positive reinforcement) for completing their homework is more likely to complete their homework in the future. Similarly, an employee who avoids being reprimanded (negative reinforcement) by arriving on time is more likely to continue being punctual. These examples illustrate how reinforcement, whether positive or negative, strengthens the connection between a behavior and its consequence, ultimately influencing future behavior.

Schneider wrote that consequences “shape our choices, and our choices shape us and our societies” (Schneider, 2012). Basically, reinforcers are a pretty big deal.

Reinforcement and Behavior Change

Understanding the role of reinforcement is crucial for effectively influencing behavior change. By strategically applying reinforcement principles, we can encourage desirable behaviors and discourage undesirable ones. Randolph Nesse explains that:

“Reinforcement learning works by selection—not natural selection but selection among varying behaviors. Individuals do various things. Actions that are followed by rewards become more frequent. Those that fail or cause pain become less frequent” (Nesse, 2019).

This has practical applications in various fields, including education, parenting, therapy, and organizational management. By carefully considering the timing, frequency, and type of reinforcement, we can create environments that promote learning, motivation, and positive behavioral outcomes. John B. Watson explains that there is “a response to every effective stimulus and that the response is immediate” (Watson, 1924).

The effectiveness of reinforcement hinges on its contingency (i.e., the consequence must be contingent on the behavior) and immediacy (i.e., the consequence should follow the behavior closely in time). Watson proclaimed it is the business of “behavioristic psychology to be able to predict and to control human activity” (Watson, 1924). The tools that behavioristic scientists uses to predict behavior is by understanding the association between a behavior and the consequence. Moreover, they manipulate behaviors by maximizing the impact of reinforcement on learning and behavior.

See Behavior Modification for more on this topic

Stimuli, Response, Consequence (Reinforcement)

According to Behaviorism, reinforcement is a fundamental event in the learning sequence. The organism perceives elements in the environment (stimuli), responds, and experiences some form of consequence in relation to the response. From the repetition of this sequence the organism refines behaviors, repeating behaviors that offer a benefit, or remove a negative consequence.

John B. Watson wrote that typically the organisms response to a stimulus “brings about an adjustment, though not always.” By an adjustment, Watson means that the organism alters its “physiological state that the stimulus no longer arouses reaction” (Watson, 1924).

We refer to repeated responses as conditioned responses. They are conditioned by the reinforcements following the behavior.

Types of Reinforcement

Positive Reinforcement

This involves presenting a rewarding stimulus after a subject performs a desired behavior, increasing the likelihood that they will repeat the behavior. Skinner explains that a positive reinforcer “strengthens any behavior that produces it” (Skinner, 1974). For example, giving a child praise or a treat for completing their homework encourages them to do it again.

Negative Reinforcement

This involves removing an aversive stimulus after a subject performs a desired behavior, also increasing the likelihood of the subject repeating the behavior. For instance, turning off a loud alarm when you get out of bed reinforces the behavior of getting up on time.

B.F. Skinner explains:

“Punishment is easily confused with negative reinforcement. The same stimuli are used, and negative reinforcement might be defined as the punishment of not behaving, but punishment is designed to remove behavior from a repertoire, whereas negative reinforcement generates behavior” (Skinner, 1974).

Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers

Primary Reinforcers

In behaviorism, primary reinforcers are stimuli that are inherently rewarding and satisfy basic biological needs or drives. They don’t require any prior learning to be effective; their reinforcing properties are innate.

Here are the key characteristics of primary reinforcers:

• Innate (unlearned responses): They are naturally reinforcing and do not depend on past experiences or learning.
• Biological basis: They typically satisfy fundamental needs crucial for survival, such as hunger, thirst, warmth, and physical comfort.
• Universal (to some extent): While individual preferences may exist, primary reinforcers generally have a similar effect on most members of a species.

Common examples of primary reinforcers:

• Food: Satisfies hunger.
• Water: Satisfies thirst.
• Warmth: Provides comfort in cold environments.
• Shelter: Provides protection from the elements.
• Sleep: Restores energy and promotes physical well-being.
• Physical touch/affection: Provides comfort and security (especially for social species).
• Relief from pain: Removing a painful stimulus is inherently reinforcing.

Secondary Reinforcers

Secondary reinforcers, also known as conditioned reinforcers, are stimuli that have acquired reinforcing properties through learning and association with primary reinforcers (those that inherently satisfy biological needs). Unlike primary reinforcers like food or water, secondary reinforcers don’t have intrinsic value; their reinforcing power comes from their learned association with something that is inherently rewarding.

Here’s a breakdown of key characteristics

• Learned association: Secondary reinforcers gain their value through classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a primary reinforcer or another established secondary reinforcer.  
• Not inherently rewarding: They do not directly satisfy biological needs.  
• Wide range of examples: They can be tangible (like money or tokens) or intangible (like praise, grades, or social approval).  
• More practical in many situations: Because they are not tied to specific biological needs, they can be used more flexibly and effectively in a wider range of situations.

How they are established

Imagine a dog being trained. The trainer uses a clicker (a neutral stimulus) immediately before giving the dog a treat (a primary reinforcer). After repeated pairings, the clicker itself becomes a secondary reinforcer. The dog learns to associate the clicker sound with the anticipation of the treat, and the clicker alone can then be used to reinforce desired behaviors.

Emotions and Behavior Reinforcement

Emotion plays a crucial role in behavioral reinforcement by influencing how individuals perceive and respond to reinforcers, which can enhance or diminish the effectiveness of reinforcement strategies. Skinner wrote that desiring, longing, hoping, and yearning are “more closely related to a current absence of appropriate behavior because they terminate when action begins” (Skinner, 1974, p. 56).

Perhaps the connection between a behavior, consequence, and emotion may be explained by Antonio Damasio’s somatic markers. Damasio explains that when a negative somatic marker is “juxtaposed to a particular future outcome the combination functions as an alarm bell” (Damasio, 2005).

Basically, a cue in the environment arouses the system which motivates a behavior response. The event cues this event through association of the cue to a particular consequence. This association in most cases is learned, rather than innate.

Here are some key aspects of this relationship:

• Motivation: Emotions often serve as motivators for behavior. Positive emotions, such as joy and satisfaction, can increase the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated when it is followed by positive reinforcement. Conversely, negative emotions like fear or anxiety may lead to avoidance behaviors unless they are managed effectively through appropriate reinforcement.
• Feedback Mechanism: Emotional responses provide immediate feedback about the consequences of actions. “Emotions shift attention to critical features of the environment, motivate behaviors that respond to these events, and reinforce actions that deal effectively with them” (Rothman et al., 2016). For example, if someone feels happy after receiving praise (positive reinforcement), they’re more likely to repeat that behavior in anticipation of similar emotional rewards in the future.
• Memory Formation: Emotions significantly impact memory retention, shaping how experiences are remembered and influencing future behaviors based on past reinforcements. Strong emotional experiences tend to create lasting memories; thus, an emotionally charged event paired with reinforcement can strengthen learning and behavior conditioning.
• Contextual Influence: The context in which reinforcement occurs can also evoke specific emotional responses that affect behavior outcomes. For instance, if reinforcing a child’s homework completion happens during a stressful situation at home (negative emotion), it might not lead to effective learning compared to a supportive environment where positive emotions flourish.
• Social Interactions: Emotions play an essential role in social contexts where behavioral reinforcement takes place—like classrooms or workplaces—by impacting relationships between teachers/managers and students/employees. A supportive atmosphere filled with positive emotions enhances engagement and receptiveness to both types of reinforcement.
• Individual Differences: People vary greatly in their emotional responses due to personality traits or past experiences; what serves as a reinforcer for one individual may not have the same effect on another due to differing emotional reactions.

Complexity and Behavior Reinforcement

When we learn about the impact on behavioral reinforcement, the concept seems simple. The rat rewarded for pushing the lever with a few drops of sugar water continues pushing the lever until it is exhausted. However, our world is much more complex than a Skinner box. A spray of sugar water is unlikely to motivate any significant behavior.

Watson wrote:

“There are thousands of simple unlearned and unconditioned responses, such as finger and arm movements, eye movements, toe and leg movements, that escape the notice of all but trained observers. These are the elements out of which our organized, learned, responses must be formed and apparently by the process of conditioning” (Watson, 1924).

Nesse wrote that students learn about” rats in Skinner boxes and get the idea that learning mechanisms are crude, as if giving people M&M’s can cure problems.” However, learning mechanisms are much more complex. Individuals are bombarded with stimuli every single moment. Stimuli must be organized, prioritized, and applied. In a simple conversation, we learn from words, however, we also register and weight “facial expressions, touches, and tones of voice.” Each of these may serve as a reinforcer (Nesse, 2019). While we may occasionally have an overriding goal, usually we are engaged in multiple goals with multiple reinforcements and punishments. If that isn’t enough complexity, we are also dynamic, we habituate to some reinforcements and they lose their potency overtime.

Each complex behavior, such as walking, is a compilation of numerous mechanisms working together.

Schneider explains:

“Consider something seemingly simple, like walking—nerves are firing and muscles contracting, while balance and direction and pace are maintained through coordinated visual and ear-based vestibular action. Learning from consequences relies on levels upon levels of such coordinated effort” (Schneider, 2012).

Schedules of Behavior Reinforcement

The timing and frequency of reinforcement can significantly impact how quickly and effectively an organism learns and maintains a behavior. Beginning in the 1950’s, Skinner conducted extensive research on the effect of different schedules of reinforcement, using his pigeon lab and skinner boxes (Ferster, 2002).

Continuous Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement is a schedule of reinforcement in operant conditioning where a behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs. This means that each instance of the desired behavior is immediately followed by a reinforcer, whether it’s positive (adding something desirable) or negative (removing something undesirable).

Advantages

• Rapid acquisition: Continuous reinforcement is highly effective for establishing new behaviors quickly. The consistent pairing of the behavior with the reinforcer creates a strong association, leading to rapid learning.
• Clear association: The immediate and consistent reinforcement makes it very clear to the learner which behavior is being reinforced.

Disadvantages

• Satiation: The effectiveness of the reinforcer can decrease over time as the learner becomes satiated (satisfied or tired) with it. This is particularly true with primary reinforcers like food or water.
• Rapid extinction: If the reinforcement is suddenly stopped, the behavior is likely to extinguish (decrease or disappear) quickly. Because the learner is used to receiving reinforcement every time, the absence of reinforcement is immediately noticeable and leads to a rapid decline in the behavior.
• Not practical for long-term maintenance: It’s often not feasible or desirable to reinforce every single instance of a behavior indefinitely.

Examples of Continuous Reinforcement

• Training a dog to sit: Giving the dog a treat every time it sits on command.
• Teaching a child to say “please”: Giving the child a desired item every time they say “please.”
• Vending machine: Receiving a snack every time you insert the correct amount of money.

When to Use Continuous Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement is most effective during the initial stages of learning a new behavior. Once the behavior is established, it’s generally more effective to switch to a partial reinforcement schedule (where the behavior is reinforced only some of the time) to maintain the behavior over the long term and prevent rapid extinction.

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

Partial reinforcement, also known as intermittent reinforcement, occurs when a behavior is reinforced only some of the time. This contrasts with continuous reinforcement, where consequences reinforce every time a behavior occurs. Partial reinforcement is extremely important for maintaining learned behaviors over the long term. Schneider wrote, “Consequences are almost infinitely varied and so are the schedules on which they come” (Schneider, 2012).

There are four basic schedules of partial reinforcement, categorized by whether the reinforcement is delivered based on the number of responses (ratio schedules) or the time elapsed (interval schedules), and whether the schedule is fixed (consistent) or variable (inconsistent).

Fixed-Ratio (FR)

• Reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses.
• Example: A factory worker receives a bonus for every 10 units they produce.
• Behavioral pattern: High rate of responding with a brief pause after each reinforcement (post-reinforcement pause).

Variable-Ratio (VR)

• Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses, varying around an average (Millenson, 1963).
• Example: A slot machine pays out after a random number of pulls.
• Behavioral pattern: Very high and consistent rate of responding with no post-reinforcement pause. This is generally the most resistant to extinction.

Fixed-Interval (FI):

• Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after a specific amount of time has elapsed.
• Example: Receiving a paycheck every two weeks.
• Behavioral pattern: Responding increases as the time for reinforcement approaches, with a pause after each reinforcement.

Variable-Interval (VI)

• Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed, varying around an average.
• Example: Checking your email; you don’t know exactly when a new message will arrive.
• Behavioral pattern: Moderate and steady rate of responding.

Key Effects of Partial Reinforcement

• Resistance to extinction: Behaviors maintained on partial reinforcement schedules are much more resistant to extinction than behaviors maintained on continuous reinforcement. Psychology refers to this as the partial reinforcement extinction effect. Because the learner is used to not receiving reinforcement every time, they are less likely to notice when reinforcement is stopped altogether.
• Sustained behavior: Partial reinforcement is more effective for maintaining behaviors over long periods of time.

Why is partial reinforcement important?

Partial reinforcement is more realistic and applicable to real-world situations. In most natural environments, consequences do not reinforce behaviors every single time they occur. Partial reinforcement helps to create more robust and persistent behaviors that are less susceptible to extinction.

Associated Concepts

• Behavior Modification: This therapy style is rooted in behaviorism. It aims to shape behavior through reinforcement and punishment. Techniques like positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment are key.
• Drive Reduction Theory: This theory proposed by Clark Hull in 1943, posits that internal drives motivate organisms to fulfill physiological needs, aiming to restore homeostasis. We see its impact in behavior, learning, and motivation.
• Exposure Therapy: This theory, rooted in classical conditioning and behavioral psychology, aids in treating anxiety disorders by gradually confronting feared stimuli in a safe setting. With historical roots in the pioneering work of behaviorists, it has evolved to include innovative techniques such as virtual reality exposure therapy.
• Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Experiments: Ivan Pavlov conducted these experiments in the late 19th century. He discovered he could condition a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell. Pavlov’s research is a prominent element in the upcoming behaviorist movement occurring during that at time.
• Lewinsohn’s Behavioral Model of Depression: This model explores the role of reduced positive reinforcement and behavioral activation in understanding and treating depression.
• Habit Formation: Habits are a core aspect of behaviorism. Key elements associated with establishing habits are stimulus-response bonds, reinforcement, contextual cues, habit loops, impulsive vs. reflective processes, and behavioral automaticity. Understanding these concepts helps individuals intentionally shape their behaviors and cultivate lasting changes aligned with their goals and well-being.
• Behavioral Neuroscience: This field, also known as biological psychology, biopsychology, or psychobiology, is the study of the biological bases of behavior and mental processes. It explores how the brain, nervous system, hormones, and genes influence our thoughts, feelings, and actions.

A Few Words by Psychology Fanatic

In summary, reinforcement stands as a cornerstone of behaviorism, providing a powerful framework for understanding how consequences shape and maintain behavior. Whether through the addition of a desirable stimulus (positive reinforcement) or the removal of an aversive one (negative reinforcement), the core principle remains the same: behaviors followed by reinforcing consequences are more likely to be repeated. This fundamental concept has far-reaching implications across diverse fields, from education and parenting to therapy and organizational management. By understanding the principles of reinforcement, we gain valuable tools for promoting positive behaviors, modifying unwanted ones, and creating environments that foster learning and growth. Recognizing the importance of factors like timing, consistency, and individual differences in reinforcement efficacy allows us to tailor interventions for maximum impact.

Ultimately, the study of reinforcement offers a scientific approach to understanding and influencing behavior. It underscores the importance of environmental factors in shaping our actions and provides practical strategies for creating positive change. By moving beyond anecdotal observations and embracing the principles of operant conditioning, we can develop more effective interventions for addressing a wide range of behavioral challenges. As we continue to explore the complexities of human and animal behavior, the concept of reinforcement will undoubtedly remain a crucial lens through which we understand how we learn, adapt, and interact with the world around us.

Last Update: September 29, 2025