Understanding Intersubjectivity Theory in Psychology

We navigate a world teeming with others, yet the bridge between individual consciousnesses remains one of philosophy’s most enduring puzzles. How do we move beyond the confines of our own minds to genuinely understand the thoughts, feelings, and experiences of another? This fundamental question lies at the heart of intersubjectivity, a concept that explores the shared spaces of understanding and the intricate dance of mutual recognition that shapes our social world. From the fleeting connection of a shared glance to the profound intimacy of deep conversation, intersubjectivity permeates every facet of human interaction, influencing our relationships, shaping our cultures, and defining our very sense of self within a social context.

This exploration delves into the multifaceted nature of intersubjectivity, examining how we come to recognize and understand others as subjects with their own unique perspectives. We will unpack the complex interplay of empathy, perception, language, and shared experiences that allows us to transcend the boundaries of individual consciousness and forge meaningful connections. By understanding the mechanisms through which we share a world of meaning, we can gain deeper insights into the nature of human connection, social interaction, and the very fabric of our shared existence. This journey into the realm of intersubjectivity promises to illuminate the intricate ways in which we are bound to one another, not merely as individuals, but as participants in a shared and constantly evolving human experience.

Defining Intersubjectivity

At its core, intersubjectivity refers to the interconnectedness of individual consciousnesses through shared experiences or meanings. Unlike subjectivity—where an individual’s perception of reality is isolated—intersubjectivity highlights how people co-construct their realities through interactions with others. This process occurs at both verbal and non-verbal levels and shapes our understanding of ourselves and the world around us.

We are not isolated. Our experience is not shaped within the unsurpassable barriers of self. Our mind is not confined to the brain. Rather the mind is a complex construction of brain body and environment.

Daniel Siegel, a clinical professor of psychiatry at the UCLA school of medicine, defines mind as:

“An emergent property of the body and relationships is created within internal neurophysiological processes and relational experiences. In other words, the mind is a process that emerges from the distributed nervous system extending throughout the entire body, and also from the communication patterns that occur within relationships” (Siegel, 2020).

Intersubjectivity is a vast topic that transcends the confines of psychology, spilling into diverse fields of philosophy, neuroscience, and other realms of exploration of the human experience. Intersubjectivity is a blending of phenomenology and social science.

Compressing the Vastness of Experience into Words

Life is much more than words. Language is incapable of incorporating all the magnitude of experience into a few well chosen words. Because words are such an essential element of consciousness, we sometimes replace reality with the symbol (language) used to describe it, radically undermining the whole. Steven Pinker wrote that many of our symbols “exist only because people tacitly agree to act as if they exist” (Pinker, 2003).

Words, Communication, and Intersubjectivity

Herbert Blumer wrote that the first premise of symbolic interactionism is that:

“Human beings act toward things on the basis of the meanings that the things have for them. Such things include everything that the human being may note in his world— physical objects, such as trees or chairs; other human beings, such as a mother or a store clerk; categories of human beings, such as friends or enemies; institutions, as a school or a government; guiding ideals, such as individual independence or honesty; activities of others, such as their commands or requests; and such situations as an individual encounters in his daily life. The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with one’s fellows” (Blumer, 1969, p. 2).

Our world of subjective experience is culturally defined. Our perception of things are a product of how those around us perceive things. Words play a significant role in this. Our sense of who we are and how we relate to our environments is promoted by language. Basically, interaction is “inseparable from communication: all interaction involves some form of communication.” This is true at the macro- level between persons and at cellular micro-levels. Communication is “an exchange of messages in some medium (i.e., some form of mediation) that both interactors share” (Litowitz, 2014).

Intersubjectivity as a Sequence

In any interaction, we draw from the other person meaning from their words and emotions. However, interpretations of their words and emotions, of course, depends on previous memories. We draw from the context what we perceive as the message the other person is trying to convey. Moreover, this is not a static process. As we are painting a picture around the communication (spoken and unspoken), they are constructing meaning from our reactions (spoken and unspoken). This process involves theory of mind cognitions. Basically, the intersubjectivity involves a form of role playing by interpreting meaning from imagining the communication from their point of view.

Thomas Scheff explains:

“Role-taking is a sequential, self-correcting process through which one individual can experience another’s subjective state to any required degree of approximation. The sequence starts with the projection of some of one’s own experience onto the other, hypothesizing what gestures one would use that would correspond with this experience, perceiving the gestures of the other that actually occur, reformulating the hypothesized experience to project, searching again for the corresponding gestures, reformulation of the second hypothesis on the basis of the actual gestures perceived, and so on indefinitely in a cycle of hypothesis- checking which allows for the successive approximation of the other’s experience” (Scheff, 1967).

Once an interaction takes place, it is embedded in our memories, influencing future communications.

As we begin to unravel the complex operations of interaction, we not only see how misinterpretations happen, but also wonder how we communicate as well as we do.

Embodied Cognition

T. Franklin Murphy wrote that embodied cognition refers to the idea that cognitive processes are “deeply intertwined with bodily states and actions.” This concept suggests that “thinking is not merely an abstract process occurring in isolation within the brain but is instead influenced by our sensorimotor experiences.” Sensorimotor contingencies provide “a framework for understanding how we perceive stimuli based on our movements and interactions” (Murphy, 2024).

Shaun Gallagher wrote, the idea that “perception, and more generally cognition, is embodied means, in part, that the structural and functional design of the body shapes the way that we experience the world” (Gallagher, 2008). We don’t learn intersubjectivity. It is a adaptive function of our organism for learning, connecting, and responding to our environments.

Memories are much more than the symbols we use to describe them. Memories are stored in our cells. Context, feelings, and symbols may activate upon recall of a past event. Siegel explains that the prefrontal cortex “integrates social, somatic, brainstem, limbic, and cortical systems all into one functional whole. This integrative mechanism enables us to function in harmony in our bodies and in our social worlds” (Siegel, 2020).​

See Embodied Cognition for more on this topic

Intersubjectivity in Cognitions

Cognitive processes involve combining our pasts, environments, and bodily feelings. We cannot subjectively interpret anything without involving all these features. We post that we are independent thinkers but our independent thoughts are derived from embodied cognitions, cultural symbols, and current environments. Martin Heidegger referred to this as “co-being” (Dallmayr, 2006). Karen Horney used the term “we-ness” (Litowitz, 2014).

Edmund Husserl argued that on a mundane level intersubjectivity was a taken-for-granted aspect of experience; on a reflective level, by contrast, this aspect required careful investigation through the method of “transcendental constitution”-a method which, relying on “ego-logical” premises, derives the other subject (or subjects) from the ego through a combination of analogical (bodily) perception and intuitive empathy” (Dallmayr, 2006).

Historical Context

Origins in Philosophy

The origins of the topic of intersubjectivity can be traced back to philosophical traditions, particularly through the work of Edmund Husserl in the early 20th century. Husserl introduced the concept to describe the shared, mutual understanding that arises between individuals through empathy and the exchange of thoughts and feelings. This idea was further developed by phenomenologists such as Edith Stein, Emmanuel Levinas, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty.

Development in Social Sciences

In the 1970s, social scientists began to use the term to refer to various types of human interaction. Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann highlighted how reality is socially constructed through intersubjective processes (Cooper-White, 2014). They emphasized that our sense of reality is shaped by our interactions with others, which can expand or alter our own perceptions.

Introduction to Psychoanalysis

Intersubjectivity was introduced to psychoanalysis by George E. Atwood and Robert Stolorow. They considered it a ‘meta-theory’ of psychoanalysis, focusing on the mutual influence of the conscious and unconscious minds of both patient and therapist. Atwood and Stolorow wrote intersubjectivity theory is “a field theory or systems theory in that it seeks to comprehend psychological phenomena not as products of isolated intrapsychic mechanisms, but as forming at the interface of reciprocally interacting subjectivities.”

Psychological phenomena “cannot be understood apart from the intersubjective contexts in which they take form” It is not the isolated individual mind but “the larger system created by the mutual interplay between the subjective worlds of patient and analyst, or of child and caregiver, that constitutes the proper domain of psychoanalytic inquiry” (Stolorow & Atwood, 1992).

This approach emphasizes the importance of the therapeutic relationship in understanding and treating psychological issues. The concept of intersubjectivity helps illuminate the core concept of transference and countertransference in psychoanalytic therapy.

Contemporary Usage

Today, intersubjectivity is a major topic in both analytic and continental philosophy. It is considered crucial not only at the relational level but also at epistemological and metaphysical levels. Intersubjectivity plays a role in establishing the truth of propositions and in the co-construction of reality through social interactions.

Applications in Developmental Psychology

In developmental psychology, intersubjectivity plays a crucial role in understanding how children form attachments and develop cognitive skills. The seminal work by Lev Vygotsky emphasizes that learning is inherently social; language acquisition occurs through interactive dialogue rather than solitary observation.

Cathy Urwin wrote:

“The use of words in communication depends on reciprocal recognition. Speaker and hearer must comprehend the significance of the symbol and the communicative import carried in the way it is used, both from their own position and that of the other at the same time. To understand the ‘structure of intersubjectivity’ presupposed by all successful communication, we must turn our attention towards the evolution of negotiating processes and shared experiences which precede the emergence of speech” (Urwin, 1978, p. 81).

The child has the capability at birth to mimic, responding in coordination with the environment. Colwyn Trevarthen suggests that the rudimentary skills of intersubjectivity begin prenatally. The infant child is born already able to attune to the sound of its mother’s voice. Trevarthen posits that intersubjective develop in two phases. The first phase begins during prenatal development and continues until the child is around six months old. The second phase on intersubjectivity begins around nine months of age.

Research indicates that infants engage in early forms of intersubjective communication before they even acquire language skills. For instance, joint attention—a phenomenon where two individuals focus on the same object or event—is foundational for developing socio-cognitive abilities such as empathy and perspective-taking.

Primary Intersubjectivity:

Primary intersubjectivity is based on “an infant’s innate ability to coordinate gaze, vocalization, facial expression, and gesture with those of a parent.” The coordination is “identified through correspondences in the form, timing, and intensity of these behaviors, and the contingencies (predictable sequences) that organize these exchanges” (Terrace et al., 2022).

Trevarthen wrote that the behavioral interactions of two- to three-month-old infants with their mothers “in face-to- face interactions proves that a human is born with readiness to know another human” (Trevarthen, 1980, p. 318). The theory here is that we are hardwired for deep connection.

• Early, direct connection: This refers to the early forms of interaction and connection between infants and their caregivers, typically in the first few months of life.  
• Dyadic interaction: It’s a “dyad,” meaning a two-person interaction, primarily focused on the infant and caregiver.  
• Pre-verbal and emotional: It’s largely based on non-verbal communication, such as:
  • Eye contact: Mutual gaze and shared attention.  
  • Facial expressions: Mimicking and responding to emotional cues.  
  • Vocalizations: Cooing, babbling, and other early sounds.  
  • Physical touch: Holding, cuddling, and other forms of physical contact.
• Innate capacity: Some researchers argue that infants have an innate capacity for this type of interaction, a predisposition to connect with others.  
• Emotional attunement: Caregivers intuitively respond to infants’ emotional states, creating a sense of shared feeling and understanding.

Example:

A mother and her baby gazing into each other’s eyes, the baby smiling and the mother responding with a smile and gentle cooing. This reciprocal exchange of emotions and expressions is a hallmark of primary intersubjectivity.

Secondary Intersubjectivity:

• Emerges later: This develops around 9-12 months of age.
• Triadic interaction: It involves a “triad,” meaning a three-way interaction, including the infant, caregiver, and an external object or event.  
• Shared attention and intention: It’s characterized by the ability to share attention with another person towards a third object or event. This involves:
  • Joint attention: Both the infant and caregiver focus on the same object.  
  • Social referencing: The infant looks to the caregiver for emotional cues about how to respond to a new object or situation.  
• Understanding of others’ intentions: It demonstrates a growing understanding that others have their own independent thoughts, feelings, and intentions related to the world (Trevarthen, 1980; Trevarthen & Hubley, 1978).

Example:

A baby points at a toy across the room, looks at their mother, and then back at the toy, indicating that they want the mother to look at or interact with the toy as well. This shared focus on a third object demonstrates secondary intersubjectivity.

Implications for Psychotherapy

In therapeutic settings, intersubjectivity becomes essential for building rapport between therapist and client. The therapeutic alliance relies heavily on mutual understanding; therapists often utilize techniques rooted in empathetic listening to create a safe space where clients feel validated.

Moreover, contemporary approaches such as relational psychoanalysis emphasize the significance of intersubjective moments—the instances when both therapist’s and client’s subjectivities intersect—allowing deeper insights into personal narratives while fostering healing connections.

Social Cognition Perspectives

From a social cognition standpoint, intersubjectivity aids our comprehension of group dynamics and cultural norms. It informs how we interpret behaviors based on contextual cues shared among members within any given society or community. Collective memories shape societal identities while also allowing room for individual interpretations—all indicative of an underlying web created by collective consciousnesses engaging with each other over time.

See Collective Consciousness for more on this topic

Challenges Within Intersubjective Frameworks

Despite its strengths, applying an intersubjective lens presents challenges too; misunderstandings can arise if one party fails to grasp another’s perspective fully due either to differing backgrounds or contexts influencing their interpretations differently than intended—which could lead not only towards conflict but also hinder effective communication processes altogether if unresolved adequately.

Furthermore, some critics argue about potential overemphasis placed upon interpersonal aspects at times undermining intrapersonal dimensions necessary alongside those external exchanges taking place constantly throughout life adventures.

Associated Concepts

• Collective Unconscious: This concept in analytical psychology proposed by Carl Jung, suggesting a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from human and pre-human ancestors. It contains archetypes, universal symbols and patterns of thought, behavior, and emotion, which influence our dreams, myths, and cultural expressions.
• Affective Events Theory (AET): This theory explores the impact of workplace events on employee emotions, attitudes, and behaviors. It emphasizes how job conditions, interpersonal relationships, and organizational culture shape these events.
• Dyadic Regulation: This refers to a process in which the emotional states of two individuals in a relationship become synchronized and regulated. It involves the ability of both individuals to mutually influence each other’s emotions and provide support during times of emotional distress.
• Wilfred Bion’s Basic-Assumption Theory: This theory delves into group dynamics, revealing unconscious assumptions like dependency, pairing, and fight-or-flight, shaping group behavior. These assumptions influence how groups function, posing potential dangers like groupthink and loss of individual identity.
• Still Face Experiments: This was a controlled laboratory procedure used to observe the effects of maternal unresponsiveness on infant behavior. It was developed by developmental psychologist Edward Tronick in 1975. The experiment involves instructing a mother to maintain a neutral facial expression and unresponsive demeanor while interacting with her infant, simulating a “still face” devoid of emotional expression.
• Mood Convergence: This concept explores how individuals synchronize their emotions within a group. This phenomenon, influenced by factors like nonverbal cues and empathy, impacts group dynamics and behavior, offering insight into human interconnectedness and emotional synchronization.
• Persuasive Arguments Theory: This theory explores the impact of groups in creating individual shifts in beliefs and decisions. It draws upon concepts of group polarization, arguments, and rational choice theory.

A Few Words by Psychology Fanatic

Intersubjectivity theory provides invaluable insight into human experience by illuminating how shared understandings shape individual perspectives across diverse domains—from childhood development through therapy sessions up until larger-scale cultural phenomena! Acknowledging this interplay enhances both academic inquiry into psychological practices while deepening everyday interactions amongst various communities worldwide ultimately fostering greater compassion leading humanity forward together harmoniously hand-in-hand nurturing growth along pathways filled hope enlightenment joy discovery connection love trust respect acceptance mutuality unity diversity richness complexity beauty truth simplicity wisdom.

Last Update: September 26, 2025