Exploring Regression: A Defense Mechanism

Life seen through a developmental model, is a slow advancement, maturing in response to the challenges of  life. We advance in knowledge, skill, and wisdom. Some theorist refer to this as ego development; others prefer moral development. The truth is we develop on many fronts, adaptively learning how to integrate new knowledge with our expanding understanding of the world. However, our development is not linear, moving directly from one stage to the next. Under distress, we may fearfully retreat, surrendering new developments for the securities belonging to the past. In psychology, this is referred to as ‘regression.’ 

What is Regression?

Ideally we progress, gathering wisdom from experience to develop ineffective defensive strategies into effective responses that help us achieve our life goals. With our development, sometimes circumstances outmatch our over stretched resources and we slip backwards. Pulling back can be an adaptive response but often it is a retreat for protection, giving up valuable ground gained during development. George Vaillant defines regression as a “retreat from adaptive mechanisms at one level to those at a less mature level” (Vaillant, 1998). These regressions can be seen as bedwetting for an older child or an adult returning to adolescent stages of acting out. On the road to recovery from addiction, a relapse would be a regression.

Defense mechanisms have a hierarchy, a level of adaptiveness (Murphy, 2021). Preferably, as we age, we develop more adaptive coping mechanisms as we age. Regression as a defense mechanism is moving from a more adaptive mechanism to a less mature reaction. moreover, regression can occur at any level (i.e. moving from a mature defense to a neurotic defense; or moving from a neurotic defense to an immature defense).

Regression and Stages of Development

Sigmund Freud referred to regression as moving back from one stage of development to an earlier stage. According to Freud, the psyche “development flowed through five  different psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latent, genital). During a child’s five psychosexual stages of development, the erogenous zone associated with each stage serves as a source of pleasure, motivating behavior. Freud theorized that the psychosexual energy, or libido, was the driving force behind behavior” (Murphy, 2022).

Each of Freud’s developmental stages have a primary conflict for the child to master during the stage. For example, the primary conflict of the oral stage is for the child to become less dependent upon caretakers. However, when this normal development fails the child experiences issues with dependency or aggression throughout their lives. In Freud’s explanation of regression, the individual regressing would fall back to an earlier stage of development, i.e. regressing from the phallic stage back to the oral stage.

Freud saw organic instincts as the most basic element motivating action. He favored characterizing these instincts as drives motivated by sex and aggression.

Human development through the psychosexual stages was the individuals increased ability to navigate social expectations while still experiencing organic instincts to act in ways that were not acceptable in the world. This primary conflict was the basis for defensive responses and the development of neurosis.

See Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development for more on this theory

Outward Focus and Regression

The child turns libidinal energy inward to satisfy organic desires. Only through interaction of the world does the child begin to focus outward. Freud explains that, “all the results of organic development” must be credited to this outward focus (Freud, 1920). Freud describes this as turning the ego towards an object. In regression, the outward focus regresses and libidinal energy is once again focused inwards. This regression leads to narcissism, masochism, and obsessive neurosis.

Freud explained that natural flow is to regress unless focus is placed outward. “The tendency to progress in development, adaptation, etc. is manifested only as against external stimuli” (Freud, 1920). 

Difficulty and Regression

During notably difficult periods of life, psychologists theorize we are more likely to regress in our development. Anna Freud specifically mentions adolescents as a specific life period of increased vulnerability. She wrote that during this period, “The rupture of former relations, antagonism to the instincts, and asceticism all have the effect of delibidinizing the external world.” She continues, “The adolescent is in danger of withdrawing his object libido from those around him and concentrating it upon himself” (Freud, 1937).

Erik Erickson also refers to the possibility of regression during development. During the toddler and early child development, the youngster begins to construct a conscience. “​This is the cornerstone of morality in the individual sense” (Erikson, 1959).

However, outer circumstances, such as overbearing parents, may curtail development of this moral compass that drives dependability, causing the child to regress. Erickson writes, “We must point out that if this great achievement is overburdened by all too eager adults, it can be bad for the spirit and for morality itself.” He continues, “For the conscience of the child can be primitive, cruel, and uncompromising, as may be observed in instances where children learn to constrict themselves to the point of overcall inhibition”   (Erikson, 1959).

Instead developing autonomy the child either retreats into blind obedience or active rebellion.

Regression and Security

Another theorized cause for regression is retreating to protective childhood states rather than facing the fears of uncertainty.

​Erich Fromm (1900-1980) wrote that people are “torn between two tendencies since the moment of his birth: one, to emerge to the light and the other to regress to the womb; one for adventure and the other for certainty; one for the risk of independence and the other for protection and dependence” (Fromm, 2010).

​Fromm theorizes that the driving force is our need for belonging. All our strivings is to answer the problem of “the sense of separateness and to gain a sense of union, of oneness, of belonging” (Fromm, 2010). Fromm suggests there are only two answers to solve this fundamental problem—a regressive answer and a progressive answer. The regressive answer is to abandon developmental progressions, deny the elements which makes us “human and yet tortures” us. Fromm is suggesting we deny possession of Freud’s organic instincts by repressing self-awareness. 

Fromm’s regression is returning to womb of complete dependence, seeking escape from Erickson’s conscience through blind obedience to outer forces of society (religious groups, political parties, romantic relationships, etc.).

In Fromm’s regressive answer we deny self autonomous development to solve the problem of separateness. “The alternative to the regressive, archaic solution to the problem of human existence, to the burden of being man, is the progressive solution, that of finding a new harmony not by regression but by the full development of all human forces, of the humanity within oneself.” Fromm warns we only have two choices: to regress or move forward. We “can either return to an archaic, pathogenic solution, or he can progress toward, and develop, his humanity” (Fromm, 2010).

Adaptiveness of Regression

Defense Mechanism Rating Scale

A common instrument for assessing defense mechanism, and the gold standard of defense mechanism inventories, is the Defense Mechanism Rating Scale (DMRS) (Di Giuseppe & Perry 2021). This scale rates the different protective mechanisms according to their adaptiveness. Affiliation as a defense mechanism is considered a highly adaptive mechanism.

Adaptiveness is not a rating of how ethical a mechanism is but how well it works. Mechanisms such as affiliation serve a dual purpose of soothing disruptive emotions while simultaneously improving the employing individuals life. The adaptiveness serves to enhance the person’s life in the moment as well as in the future. A less adaptive mechanism may relieve immediate discomfort while damaging future opportunities. These mechanisms are maladaptive.

However, regression is not specifically listed on this adaptiveness rating scale. Most likely this is because, regression can be employed at any adaptiveness level. For instance, during a particularly difficult time, a person may regress from a level 6 adaptive defense, to a level 6 obsessional defense.

Associated Concepts

• Psychosexual Development: Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychosexual development is closely tied to regression, where individuals may revert to behaviors from earlier developmental stages like oral, anal, or phallic stages.
• Denial: This is a a defense mechanism where we soothe discomforting emotions by denying certain aspects of external reality.
• Ego Psychology: This branch of psychology focuses on the ego’s ability to adapt to the demands of the external world while managing inner conflicts. Ego psychology emphasizes the importance of defense mechanisms, reality testing, and the development of a cohesive self-identity.
• Projection: This refers to a psychological process in which an individual attributes their own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or characteristics onto someone else. It involves projecting one’s own undesirable impulses, motivations, or traits onto another person, often without conscious awareness.
• Self Psychology: Developed by Heinz Kohut, self psychology examines how we use interpersonal relationships to develop our sense of self and maintain self-esteem. Self-esteem is a key function of the ego.
• Neurosis: Freud believed that regression could lead to neurosis, a psychological condition arising from internal conflict, often manifesting as anxiety or depression.
• Therapeutic Interventions: Understanding triggers of regression can be beneficial in therapy, helping individuals to process stress, develop coping skills, and change behavior.

A Few Words From Psychology Fanatic

Through the last 150 years, several psychologists and philosophers have addressed the concept of regression. The differing concepts covered in this short examination of regression only represents a small splattering of the concept. I find each of the approached different but interrelated, giving us a more complex understanding of the overall defensive motivation to regress in response to difficult problems encountered during development.

Some regressions are adaptive, giving us space to heal and rejuvenate; other regressions may interfere with growth, with enticing comfort zones from the past rather than exploring rich new environments that are only available to the courageous adventurer, willing to brave the unknown, trusting personal resources will be sufficient to conquer whatever may come.

Last Update: January 19, 2026

References:

Di Giuseppe, M., & Perry, J. (2021). The Hierarchy of Defense Mechanisms: Assessing Defensive Functioning With the Defense Mechanisms Rating Scales Q-Sort. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.718440
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Erikson, Erik H. (1994) Identity and the Life Cycle. W. W. Norton & Company; Revised ed. edition.ISBN-10: 0393311325 APA Record: 1994-97386-000
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Freud, Anna (1937). The Ego and Mechanisms of Defense. ​Routledge; 1st edition. ISBN-10: 1855750384; APA Record: 1947-01454-000
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Freud, Sigmund (1920/1990). Beyond the Pleasure Principle. W. W. Norton & Company; The Standard edition. DOI: 10.1037/11189-000
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Fromm, Erich (2010) The Heart of Man: Its Genius for Good and Evil. American Mental Health Foundation. Basic Books. ISBN: 9781590561867
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Murphy, T. Franklin (2021). Defense Mechanisms. Psychology Fanatic. Published: 6-12-2021; Accessed: 10-2-2022. Website: https://psychologyfanatic.com/defense-mechanisms/
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Murphy, T. Franklin (2022). Developmental Theory. Psychology Fanatic. Published: 6-11-2022; Accessed: 10-3-2022. Website: https://psychologyfanatic.com/developmental-theories/
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Vaillant, George E. (1998) Adaptation to Life. Harvard University Press; Reprint edition. ISBN: 9780674004146
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