How to Shape Behavior: The Science of Control Theory

Have you ever felt like you’re constantly striving to maintain a sense of order and predictability in your life? From setting daily routines to planning long-term goals, we often find ourselves engaged in a delicate balancing act, striving to control our environment and our own behavior. Behavioral control theory, a fascinating branch of psychology, delves into the intricate mechanisms that drive our desire for control and the strategies we employ to achieve it.

Introduction to Behavioral Control Theory

Control theory, a prominent concept in psychology, delves into the mechanisms through which individuals regulate their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to achieve desired outcomes. Originating from the broader field of cybernetics, control theory has found extensive application in understanding a wide array of psychological phenomena, including motivation, self-regulation, and behavioral change. This article explores the foundations of control theory, its key components, and its implications for psychological research and practice.

The Foundations of Control Theory

Control theory in psychology is rooted in the principles of feedback systems, which are grounded in cybernetics – the study of regulatory systems. At its core, control theory posits that human behavior is a function of continuous feedback loops, where individuals compare their current state with a desired state and take actions to minimize any discrepancies. This process is akin to how a thermostat regulates temperature by adjusting heating or cooling mechanisms to maintain a setpoint.

Control theory addresses the complex nature of an organism in its environment. Both the organism and the environment are elements of a complex system. Each element moves independently and relation to each other. When driving down the freeway, I do not have control of the steering wheel and gas pedal of the car travelling behind me; however, I can behave in way that indirectly leads to their use. Likewise other drivers can also indirectly influence the use of my acceleration, braking, and steering functions of my car.

We are all part of a complex system that in part motivates our behavior. However, we also have the ability to intentionally act on our environment to transform outcomes. Behavioral control theory examines behavior in the light if this complex interaction system composed of goals, environments, feedback loops, and adjustments.

Historical Context

The origins of control theory can be traced back to the mid-20th century, with seminal contributions from Norbert Wiener, who coined the term “cybernetics.” Wiener’s work laid the groundwork for understanding how systems – both mechanical and biological – maintain stability through feedback loops. Wiener compared the human nervous system to a mechanical feedback system.

Wiener wrote:

“It is a noteworthy fact that the human and animal nervous systems, which are known to be capable of the work of a computation system, contain elements which are ideally suited to act as relays. These elements are the so-called neurons or nerve cells. While they show rather complicated properties under the influence of electrical currents, in their ordinary physiological action they conform very nearly to the ‘all-or- none’ principle: that is, they are either at rest ; or when they ‘fire ‘, they go through a series of changes almost independent of the nature and intensity of the stimulus” (Wiener, 1948).

Behavioral Control Theory

While early control theory often refers to automatic processes of machines and organisms that maintain optimal or desired conditions, behavioral control theory takes these same concepts to explain purposeful behavior towards goal fulfillment.

In psychology, behavioral control theory gained prominence through the work of Charles Carver and Michael Scheier (1979; 1990), who applied these concepts to human motivation and self-regulation.

In the context of behavior, they argue that “human behavior is a continual process of moving toward, and away from, various kinds of mental goal representations, and that this movement occurs by a process of feedback control.” Furthermore, Carver and Scheier see behavior as “the consequence of an internal guidance system inherent in the way living beings are organized.” This guidance system regulates experiences focusing on what it deems important. They refer to this “guidance process as a system of self-regulation” (Carver & Scheier, 2001).

Carver and Scheier explain intentional behavior within the control theory framework this way, “We construe intentional behavior as reflecting a process of feedback control. When people move (physically or psychologically) toward goals, they manifest the functions of a negative (discrepancy reducing) feedback loop. That is, people periodically note the qualities they are expressing in their behavior (an input function). They compare these perceptions with salient reference values—whatever goals are temporarily being used to guide behavior (a comparison process inherent in all feedback systems).”

Carver and Scheier continue, “If the comparisons indicate discrepancies between reference value and present state (i.e., between intended and actual qualities of behavior), people adjust behavior (the output function) so that it more closely approximates the reference value” (Carver & Scheier, 1990).

Key Components of Behavioral Control Theory

Control theory involves several key components that work in tandem to regulate behavior:

Homeostatic Processes

Homeostasis is a fundamental concept in biology that refers to the processes by which living organisms maintain stable internal conditions despite changes in external environments. When viewed through the lens of control theory, homeostasis can be understood as a feedback system designed to regulate physiological parameters such as temperature, pH, hydration levels, and more.

In control theory, systems are often analyzed using models that include inputs, outputs, and feedback loops.

Here’s how homeostasis fits into this framework:

• Set Point: In any homeostatic process, there is typically a set point or desired state for a particular variable (e.g., body temperature). This set point represents an optimal condition for functioning.
• Sensors/Detectors: Biological systems contain sensors that monitor the current state of the variable being regulated. For example, thermoreceptors in the skin detect changes in temperature.
• Comparators: The information from sensors is relayed to a comparator (often analogous to regulatory centers in biological organisms). This component assesses whether the current state deviates from the set point.
• Effectors: If there’s a deviation from the set point—either too high or too low—the comparator activates effectors to restore balance. For instance, if body temperature rises above normal levels, effectors like sweat glands may increase sweat production to cool down; conversely, shivering might occur if it’s too cold.
• Feedback Loops: Homeostatic regulation involves negative feedback loops where output from effectors counteracts deviations from the set point—bringing conditions back toward equilibrium. Positive feedback mechanisms can also exist but are less common in maintaining stability; they typically drive processes to completion (like childbirth).
• Dynamic Equilibrium: The system continuously adjusts itself based on input signals and environmental changes while aiming for dynamic equilibrium—a state where variables fluctuate within narrow limits around their respective set points rather than remaining perfectly constant.

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In summary, when analyzing homeostasis through control theory principles, it becomes clear that it operates like an intricate regulatory mechanism involving continuous monitoring and adjustment processes aimed at preserving an organism’s internal environment within ranges conducive for survival and function. Carver posits that the same “logical elements that underlie homeostasis underlie any attempt to attain a desired goal” (Carver, 2006).

See Homeostasis for more on this topic

Reference Value

A reference value (often referred to as a set point) is a predetermined target or desired state that a system aims to achieve and maintain. This concept is crucial for understanding how systems regulate their behavior and respond to changes in their environment. The reference condition for intentional behavior would refer to the desired end state. Whether it be promotion, retirement, or getting healthy. This reference value is the benchmark to measure current states.

For the example, a goal of retiring in fifteen years, would include a year-by-year analysis of necessary increases in bank balances to achieve the ultimate goal of retirement. When a balance of a particular year falls short of the goal, it represents a deviation, motivating control mechanisms to get the accounts balances back in alignment with projected reference values.

A well-defined reference value helps ensure system stability and optimal performance by providing clear targets for response strategies. Systems with poorly defined or fluctuating reference values may struggle with maintaining equilibrium and could lead to instability or inefficiency.

In summary, within control theory frameworks, a reference value plays a critical role as the standard against which actual operating conditions are evaluated and corrected through feedback mechanisms—ensuring that systems remain functional and stable amid changing environments.

Input Function

The input function involves the perception and assessment of the current state. Individuals continuously monitor their behavior and environmental conditions to gather information on their current status. In the realm of intentional behavior directed towards achieving a specific goal, the input function is the deliberate actions or efforts taken to influence the outcome of a process or achieve a specific objective. Much like in control theory, these inputs are crucial for steering the behavior of the system towards the desired result, ensuring that the system’s responses align with the set goals.

Outcome expectancies motivate specific intentional behaviors. For example, I may expect that spending an hour at the gym three days a week (input function) will lead to my weight loss goals (reference value). Outcome expectancy is a prediction of how a behavior leads to a consequence. Bandura elaborates that incidence of behavior that have been “positively reinforced does not increase if individuals believe, based on other information, that the same actions will not be rewarded on future occasions” (Bandura, 1977, p. 192).

Comparator

The comparator is the cognitive mechanism that evaluates the discrepancy between the current state and the reference value. It determines the magnitude and direction of any deviation from the desired state. Carver and Scheier explain that through self-directed attention we more fully engage the comparator function. They posit that if “the comparison process is more fully engaged, the loop should do a better job of doing what it does: maintaining conformity between its sensed input and the standard.” Accordingly, self-focus should promote closer self-regulation to the person’s reference value. (Carver & Scheier, 2001).

Output Function

The output function encompasses the actions or behaviors that individuals undertake to reduce the discrepancy identified by the comparator. This function captures how the system reacts over time and provides essential feedback for determining whether the system is achieving the desired performance or stability. By analyzing the output function, individuals can make adjustments to the input to correct any deviations and optimize system performance.

Our predictive impact of a behavior on reality often miss the mark. In psychology, we refer to this as a prediction error. A well-tuned comparator identifies these errors between the reference value and output function.

Lisa Feldman Barrett wrote:

“Prediction errors aren’t problems. They’re a normal part of the operating instructions of your brain as it takes in sensory input. Without prediction error, life would be a yawning bore. Nothing would be surprising or novel, and therefore your brain would never learn anything new” (Barrett, 2018, p. 62).

These actions are aimed at aligning the current state with the reference value.

Feedback Loop

Feedback loops play a critical role in behavioral control theory, serving as a mechanism by which systems maintain stability and adapt to changes in their environment. At its core, a feedback loop is a process where a system’s output is fed back into the system as input, creating a cycle of continuous adjustment and correction. This self-regulating process can be either positive or negative, depending on whether the feedback amplifies or diminishes the original output. In behavioral control theory, feedback loops are essential for modifying behavior based on the consequences of previous actions, ensuring that the system can achieve desired outcomes.

The concept of feedback loops is deeply intertwined with the notion of homeostasis, a state of equilibrium within a system. In behavioral control theory, negative feedback loops are particularly important for maintaining homeostasis. When a behavior leads to a certain outcome, the system measures this outcome against a set point or desired state. If there is a deviation, the feedback loop works to adjust the behavior to bring the outcome back in line with the set point. For example, in a learning environment, if a student’s performance falls short of expectations, negative feedback can help the student identify errors and make necessary corrections to improve future performance.

Positive Feedback Loops

Positive feedback loops, on the other hand, reinforce and amplify behaviors, leading to significant changes within the system. While they can sometimes drive systems away from their equilibrium, they are also vital in promoting growth and development. In a behavioral context, positive feedback can encourage and strengthen desirable behaviors. For instance, when positive reinforcement is provided for a certain behavior, it increases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. Ultimately, feedback loops, whether positive or negative, are fundamental to behavioral control theory as they enable systems to adapt, learn, and evolve in response to their environment.

See Feedback Loops for more on this topic

Applications of Control Theory in Psychology

Control theory has been applied to various domains within psychology, providing valuable insights into how individuals manage their behavior and emotions. Some notable applications include:

Self-Regulation

Self-regulation, the ability to control one’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in pursuit of long-term goals, is a central concept in control theory. Charles S. Carver and Michael F. Scheier define self-regulation as a purposive process, that includes self-corrective adjustments to override impulses that resides within the person (Carver & Scheier, 2017). 

By understanding the feedback mechanisms involved in self-regulation, researchers can develop interventions to enhance individuals’ ability to maintain focus, resist temptations, and achieve their objectives.

See Self-Regulation for more on this topic

Motivation

Control theory offers a framework for understanding motivation by highlighting how individuals set goals, monitor progress, and adjust their efforts. Motivational dynamics are influenced by the perceived discrepancy between the current state and the desired goal, driving individuals to take actions to bridge this gap.

Motivation in control theory involves setting clear goals, utilizing feedback mechanisms for assessment, experiencing discrepancies that inspire action, and adjusting behaviors accordingly—all contributing to effective self-regulation toward achieving objectives.

Behavioral Change

Control theory has been instrumental in designing interventions aimed at promoting behavioral change. Whether in the context of health behaviors, addiction, or organizational settings, control theory provides a structured approach to identifying barriers, setting achievable goals, and implementing strategies to achieve lasting change.

Emotional Regulation

Emotional regulation involves managing and modifying emotional responses to align with situational demands and personal goals.

Sandra L. Koole, Lotte F. Van Dillen, and Gal Sheppes explain:

“Self-regulation and emotion regulation are often so intertwined that it is hard to say where one ends and the other begins. Among other things, self-regulation research may illuminate how people function as active agents in managing their emotional lives. Conversely, emotion regulation research may illuminate how people direct their actions in emotion-arousing contexts” (Koole et al., 2017).

Control theory elucidates how individuals monitor their emotional states, identify discrepancies from desired emotional outcomes, and employ coping strategies to achieve emotional balance.

Research and Practical Implications

Control theory has profound implications for both psychological research and practical applications. By providing a systematic framework for understanding behavior, control theory enables researchers to design experiments that elucidate the underlying mechanisms of self-regulation and motivation. Additionally, practitioners can leverage control theory to develop targeted interventions that enhance individuals’ capacity for self-control and goal attainment.

Challenges and Limitations

Despite its strengths, control theory is not without its challenges and limitations. One criticism is that the model may oversimplify the complexity of human behavior, neglecting factors such as social influences, emotions, and unconscious processes. Additionally, the efficacy of control-based interventions can vary depending on individual differences and contextual factors.

Associated Concepts

• Health Action Process Approach (HAPA): This is a psychological theory focusing on health behavior change. It integrates motivational and volitional factors to understand and predict health behaviors.
• Behavioral Activation System (BAS): This refers to a neurological system activated in response to the signals of reward, motivating approach behaviors.
• Approach-Avoidance Theory: This theory delves into the conflict of desiring and fearing the same goal. It explores the tension between attraction and avoidance, impacting decision-making. Psychological distance, magnitude of valence, and conflicting goals play key roles.
• Positive and Negative Affect: The BAS is thought to be related to positive affect, which includes emotions and moods such as happiness and excitement, due to its role in seeking rewards and positive experiences.
• Achievement Goal Theory: The BAS is implicated in the setting and pursuit of goals, particularly those that are associated with rewards and personal aspirations.
• Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET): This theory explores the intricate relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, highlighting how external factors can enhance or diminish internal drives.
• Possible Selves: This is a concept by Hazel Markus and Paula Nurius, are visions of our future selves based on personal knowledge and experiences. These visions include goals, aspirations, fears, and are deeply rooted in enduring characteristics, shaping motivation and behavior toward personal growth and well-being.

A Few Words by Psychology Fanatic

In our pursuit of order and predictability, behavioral control theory emerges as a pivotal tool in understanding how we navigate the complexities of our lives. As highlighted at the outset, we are often engaged in a delicate balancing act—striving to harness control over both our environment and ourselves. This framework not only elucidates the mechanisms that underlie our desire for regulation but also emphasizes the profound impact of feedback loops and goal-directed actions on our behaviors. By recognizing these dynamics, we empower ourselves to take intentional steps towards achieving meaningful outcomes.

Ultimately, behavioral control theory serves as a guiding light in our journey toward personal growth and self-improvement. It reminds us that while external factors can complicate our efforts, we possess an inherent ability to adjust and adapt through self-regulation. By applying the principles discussed throughout this article—from homeostasis to feedback loops—we can cultivate greater awareness of our behavior patterns and actively shape them in alignment with our goals. Embracing this knowledge not only enhances individual motivation but also fosters resilience against life’s unpredictable challenges, allowing us to thrive amid uncertainty while remaining steadfast in pursuit of what truly matters to us.

Last Update: September 20, 2025