Dissociative Disorders: Types, Symptoms, and the Link to Trauma

Sometimes life intrudes, smashing securities, and shattering soothing assumptions about the world. We are survival driven creatures. In moments of extreme stress, the mind is challenged to provide comfort. Dissociative disorders are theorized to provide an avenue of escape. Dissociative disorders, known as hysteria in early psychology, are mental disorders involving disconnection and lack of continuity between thoughts, memories, surroundings, actions and identity.

In a Mayo Clinic article, they write that with dissociative disorders people “escape reality in ways that are involuntary and unhealthy and cause problems with functioning in everyday life” (2022). Despite significant advancement in medical treatments, dissociative disorders fight all efforts of treatment.

​As common with other neuroses, dissociative disorders serve as an escape from immediate discomforting emotions through a maladaptive cognitive defense. The cognitive escape mediates present emotion by severing connections to reality. While these dissociations with reality may offer temporary comfort, they interfere with healthy behaviors necessary for building relationships and obtaining long term goals.

Key Definition:

Dissociative disorders are a group of mental health conditions characterized by a disruption in a person’s normal sense of self, memory, identity, or perception. Individuals with dissociative disorders may experience episodes of dissociation, which involves a detachment from their thoughts, feelings, memories, or even their physical surroundings.

​What are Dissociative Disorders?

Dissociation is a pathological process in which the individual’s psyche splits in two or more parts. At least one of the parts is relatively able to function in reality, while the other part or parts of the psyche are dysfunctional. These disorganized parts of the psyche usual live in a false reality existing only in mental constructions or delusions.

In the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health (DSM-5), dissociation is defined as a disruption, interruption, and/or discontinuity of the normal, subjective integration of behavior, memory, identity, consciousness, emotion, perception, body representation, and motor control.

Dissociative disorders are characterized as breakdowns of memory, awareness, identity, or perception occurring in response to psychological trauma. Think of your mind like a house with a circuit breaker. When the electrical system (your emotions) gets overloaded by a massive surge of power (trauma), the circuit breaker flips to protect the house from catching fire. Dissociation is that ‘flip.’ It’s your mind’s way of pulling the plug on a painful reality so you can survive the moment.

Dissociative Disorders are Functional in Nature

Dissociative disorders are considered functional in nature. Insult, injury, or disease impacting the brain do not cause dissociative disorders.

Multiple personality disorder, now diagnosed as dissociative identity disorder, was made popular through cinema. In 1957,  the life story of Chris Costner Sizemore was made into the film The Three Faces of Eve. Sizemore was diagnosed with a dissociative disorder (multiple personality disorder). Psychiatrists identified three separate personalities (Eve White, Eve Black, and Jane). The movie was based on a book written by psychiatrists Corbett H. Thigpen and Hervey M. Cleckley.

In 1976, the fascinating mini series Sybil was broadcast on NBC starring Sally Fields as Sybil Dorsett, a girl dissociating from severe childhood trauma through multiple (13) alternate personalities. The movie and book were based on the life of Shirley Ardell Mason.

The movies, perhaps, influenced a wave of new cases of a disorder that was relatively ignored before the popular cinematic productions. Yet, dissociation, when mild and intermittent, is fairly common. The dissociation serves as a protective function, rarely requiring professional assistance; nor rising to a level that would be medically diagnosed as a disorder.

However, as in the examples portrayed in Sybil and the Three Faces of Eve, dissociation may grossly impair functioning. When dissociation disturbs normal functioning, a diagnoses from a trained professional and treatment may be necessary.

History of Dissociative Disorders

The idea of dissociation relies on the foundational concept of the mind outside of conscious awareness. During the 19th century, this concept became widely accepted, and along with it came theories of mental illnesses. Basically, dissociation, in any form, is the relegating of memories and perceptions normal held in consciousness to the unconscious, creating a disassociation from a memory, identity, or perception.

Hysteria

Early cases of dissociation were referred to as hysteria. Psychological literature from the 19th century and early 20th century contains many references to hysteria.

In a lecture on the hysterical phenomena, Sigmund Freud and Josef Breuer wrote:

“External events determine the pathology of hysteria to an extent that is far greater than is known. It is of course, obvious that in cases of traumatic “hysteria”  what provides the symptoms is the accident” (Freud & Breuer, 1895).

Pierre Janet (1859-1947)

The first systematic study of dissociation is credited to Pierre Janet. His research arose from his therapeutic work with hysterical patients and his use of hypnosis as treatment for the psychological effects of trauma (Atchison & McFarlane, 2016).

Many of Janet’s theories of integration and dissociation remain relevant today. We see shadows of his early research in modern concepts of integration.

Janet theorized:

“Novel experiences are normally integrated into memory through unification of emotions, thoughts, actions, and sensations related to that experience.” 

According to Janet, new experience (with all its components) is cognitively assessed against previous memories (process of integration). Traumatic experiences that “do not fit into into existing cognitive schema may be split off from conscious awareness” (Atchison & McFarlane, 2016, p. 592).

Janet suggested that the pieces of new experience that were split off, and hidden from conscious awareness, still exist in the unconscious. He explained that these fragments “may consist of memories, feelings, or actions, and may be triggered by situations reminiscent of the original trauma” (Atchison & McFarlane, 2016, p. 592).

According to Janet, hysterical crises were the re-enactment of dissociated fragments, hiding in the unconscious.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

After the death of Janet, his theories of dissociation lost credibility. Many of Janet’s former patients were exposed as frauds. Interest in psychological trauma continued in new scientific studies conducted under the umbrella of post-traumatic stress disorders (PTSD). Trauma induced mental illness and dysfunction continued to dominate the landscape of hysteria and dissociative illnesses.

​During the middle part of the 20th century, behaviorism became one of the leading theories of behavior. Scientific studies on PTSD shifted, largely following behavioristic explanations, departing from the psychodynamic theories of the unconscious proposed by Janet and Freud.

Behaviorism largely supported a sociocognitive model that proposes that dissociation is largely “a consequence of social learning and expectancies.” According to this model, many uncovered memories are not necessarily to moving of a fragment of a dissociative experience, but the inadvertent result of “therapist cueing (e.g. suggestive questioning regarding the existence of possible alters, hypnosis for memory recovery, sodium amytal), media influences, and sociocultural expectations” (Lynn et al., 2012).

Sociocognitive model became a popular counterargument to the significant wave of recovered memories of childhood abuse and subsequent criminal investigations into decades old abuse. Importantly, recollections only recently remembered during therapeutic treatment, without any collaborating evidence, is woefully insufficient to charge someone for criminal behavior.

After the short lived domination of behaviorism, cognitive and neurobiological explanations took center stage, continuing to dominate the epidemiology of the dissociation disorders today.

See Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder for more on this disorder

Signs of Dissociation: How It Feels to Disconnect

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM)

For a closer look at the signs and symptoms of dissociation disorder, let’s take a look at the DSM. While the diagnosis for dissociation disorder have changed over the different editions of the DSM, the major symptoms have remained relatively consistent.

First Edition

Dissociative disorders have been included in all editions of the DSM going back to its first edition published in 1952. In the first edition, dissociative disorders were included as psychoneurotic disorders, in which anxiety is either “directly felt and expressed” or “unconsciously and automatically controlled” through various defense mechanisms.

Under this label, organizers of DSM listed the following dissociative disorders:

• Depersonalization
• Dissociated (multiple) personality
• Stupor (impaired consciousness wherein the person barely reacts to environmental stimuli)
• Fugue (pathological state of altered consciousness)
• Amnesia
• Dream states
• Somnambulism (sleepwalking)

Second Edition

In DSM-II (1968), authors listed dissociative identity disorder as hysterical neurosis, dissociative type, defined as an alteration to consciousness and identity (Tracy, 2022).

Third Edition

In DSM-III (1980) “Dissociative” was introduced as a class of disorders. 

The DSM-III-R text revision listed dissociative disorder as “a disturbance in the normally integrative functions of identity, memory, or consciousness” as an essential feature of dissociative disorders (Tracy, 2022). In these editions, “interpersonality amnesia” was removed from the diagnostic criteria, creating a much more liberal diagnosis, allowing for an increased frequency of occurrence in a once rare disorder (Kihlstrom, 2005).

Fourth Edition

In DSM-IV (1994), changes somewhat remedied the omission of amnesia in the previous version. DSM-IV reinserted amnesia as a specific criterion for the diagnosis of multiple personality disorder. In DSM-IV, authors renamed multiple personality disorder (MPD) as dissociative identity disorder (DID).

The criteria for dissociative identity disorder in DSM-IV:

The presence of two or more distinct identities or personality states (each with its own relatively enduring pattern of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and self).

• At least two of these identities or personality states recurrently take control of the person’s behavior.
• Inability to recall important personal information that is too extensive for ordinary forgetfulness.
• The disturbance is not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., blackouts or chaotic behavior during Alcohol Intoxication) or a general medical condition (e.g., complex partial seizures). Note: In children, the symptoms are not attributable to imaginary playmates or other fantasy play.

---

These new criteria emphasized “the importance to changes in consciousness and identity,” over much more common occurrence of changes in personality ​(Kihlstrom, 2005).

Fifth Edition

DSM-5 (2013) changed the dissociation disorder definition to allow self-reports and added that amnesia may occur with regards to everyday events and not just traumatic one.

Many argue that the fourth and fifth editions, did not go far enough in reversing the liberal definition created in DSM-III. John F. Kihlstrom argues that “even with the strict criteria in place, it can be difficult to discriminate between the dissociative disorders and bipolar disorder, borderline personality disorder, and even schizophrenia” (Kihlstrom, 2005, p. 229).

What Causes Dissociative Disorders?

Many psychologists and psychiatrists consider dissociation as a coping mechanism to deal with overpowering stress. George Vaillant, a professor of psychiatry at Harvard University lists dissociation as a defense mechanism. He explains, “Dissociation permits the ego to so alter the subject’s internal state that the pain of conflict becomes irrelevant” (Vaillant, 1998).

Alfred Adler suggests that in “dissociation” or the “split personality” that the double life serves as to “rescue the personality from colliding with reality” (Adler, 2011). Dissociation may become a repetition compulsion to trauma. Early experiences of escaping the painful impact of trauma experiences through dissociation is rewarding, reenforcing the pattern of escape.

The Role of Trauma: Why the Mind Dissociates

​Ronnie Janoff-Bulman in her book on trauma, Shattered Assumptions, refers to dissociation as extreme denial. She wrote that in dissociation, “it is not as if the trauma does not exist; it is that the trauma does not exist in consciousness or the consciousness of one’s primary personality” (Janoff-Bulman, 2002, p. 103).

​Lawrence Heller, Ph.D., founder of the NeuroAffective Relational Model© (NARM), a therapy to treat individuals exposed to severe trauma, suggests that many of those severely traumatized function “by using dissociation to disconnect from the distress in their body.” Heller explained that, “By dissociating—that is, by keeping threat from overwhelming consciousness—a traumatized individual can continue to function” (Heller & LaPierre, 2012).

​Heller reminds that we all use some form of dissociation.

He wrote:

“Dissociation is a human response. In reaction to trauma, the dissociative process is a life-saving mechanism that helps human beings bear experiences that would otherwise be unbearable. We are all disconnected and dissociated to one degree or another” (Heller & LaPierre, 2012).

Modern science gives a deeper explanation to how trauma leads to dissociation, and in extreme circumstance creating fertile fields for the dysfunctional states of the dissociative disorders.

Neglected Primary Needs

Our biological systems strives to obtain survival needs (food, water, security). Unmet needs arouse our system. For babies, they cry. Adults possess a complex construction of behaviors that they draw upon to obtain needs from others.

When significant others withhold needs or when our needs are unobtainable, we first protest, follow with anger, then ignite into rage. However, the child (or adult) react with hyperarousal or dissociation. when these expressions of need go unheeded. These two patterns represent extreme forms of Bowlby’s protest and despair responses to attachment injuries. Allan N. Schore, Ph.D., explains that hyperarousal and dissociation represent “activation of the two components of the autonomic nervous system (ANS): first, the energy-expending sympathetic branch; and then, the energy-conserving parasympathetic branch” (Schore, 2003).

When caregivers fail to hear the protests, the child’s expended energy disrupts and the system becomes disorganized. Conversely, an adult may seek alternate means to obtain needs. However, the child employs defensive responses to these unheard calls for attention. Dissociation is one of those means—a disconnection from the emotions associated with the unmet need.

Dissociation as a Strategy to Cope

Diana Fosha, Ph.D., points out that when a child’s primary caregivers fail to provide basic support in managing fear, the child’s response can become more complicated. In such cases, neglect can heighten the child’s fear response. This situation creates an environment where dissociation and splitting of personality may emerge as coping mechanisms (Fosha, 2000). These strategies allow children to shield themselves from overwhelming psychological distress in difficult situations.

When faced with trauma or harsh environments, young children typically start by expressing their needs through protest and activating their sympathetic nervous system—their “fight or flight” response. However, if these cries for help go unanswered, they often switch to a different survival mechanism: the parasympathetic response known as “freeze.”

Lawrence Heller suggests that early trauma tends to lead individuals toward this immobilization strategy. He notes that some people may completely disconnect from their feelings—numbing all sensations and emotions—as a way of coping with severe experiences (Heller & LaPierre, 2012).

Research supports the idea that the timing of trauma significantly impacts how individuals develop dissociative disorders later in life. Allan Schore explains that when trauma occurs at an early age, it can create what he calls a “psychic catastrophe,” leading to detachment from unbearable situations as a last resort defense mechanism (Schore, 2009).

Similarly, Robin Karr-Morse and Meredith Wiley found that younger children who experience terror are more likely to respond with dissociation instead of hyperarousal—a reaction seen in older individuals facing similar stressors (Karr-Morse & Wiley, 2014). Understanding these responses helps illuminate how complex childhood experiences shape mental health outcomes over time.

Early Trauma and Dissociation

Early trauma and dissociation creates a fragmented self.

Daniel Siegel, M.D., distinguished scholar of childhood trauma and emotional integration, explains:

“The child has the double insult of becoming engulfed in confusion and terror induced by the parent, and of losing the relationship with an attachment figure that might have provided a safe haven and sense of security. Dissociation can be an outcome of these experiences and produce an internal sense of fragmentation of the self” (Siegel, 2020).

Our mind does wonderful and terrible things with fragmented experiences. Accordingly, the chaotic flowing of experience, emotion, and memories when not properly integrated into a useful whole can morph into a variety of disorders, while the mind tries to make sense of life while simultaneously blocking significant painful conflicts. From the chaotic and conflicted unconscious world emerge, dissociative disorders.

This process is not just a terrifying display of unseen forces but a biological reality of underdeveloped connections between various parts of the brain.

What are the Main Types of Dissociative Disorders?

​​Dissociative Fugue

DSM text describes dissociative Fugue as reversible amnesia for identity. Often accompanied by unplanned travel or wandering, and sometimes the formation of a new identity. Professionals typically associate this state of mind with extreme stress in the present (Petric, 2022). Dissociative fugue shares similar features as other brief psychotic disorders with episodes including the addition of a disruption to identity.

We may explain the cause of dissociative fugue with the diathesis stress model. T. Franklin Murphy explains that the diathesis stress model posits that “disorders develop as a result of interactions between pre-dispositional vulnerabilities (the diathesis), and stress caused by life experiences” (Murphy, 2021). In essence, an individual possesses genetic vulnerabilities for dissociative fugue which adverse experience activates.

The foundational concept is that under extreme stress that impose psychological demands beyond an individual’s window of tolerance, the psyche breaks down. In the case of dissociative fugue the break down includes momentary and reversible amnesia of identity.

Dissociative Amnesia

“Dissociative amnesia may be defined as an inability to consciously recall autobiographical information in the absence of brain damage detectable by conventional neuroimaging” (Petric, 2022). Episodes of dissociative amnesia may last a few minutes to a few years, depending on the severity of the trauma, and personality traits of the individual (including their use of defense and coping mechanisms).

Depersonalization Disorder

DSM characterizes periods of detachment from self and immediate surroundings depersonalization disorder. Accordingly, the subject momentarily experiences reality as unreal, almost like a dream, however, the individual maintains an awareness that it is only a feeling and not a delusion.

With depersonalization disorders, individuals may experience disconnection from themselves, feeling like an automation; or, as if, they are viewing themselves from a distance. Therefore, It may serve as an escape. Consequently, creating a reinforcing reward of soothing heightened arousal.

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

Dissociative identity disorder (DID), formerly known as multiple personality disorder is the alternating between two or more personality states. In some extreme cases, the individual is unaware of the other altering personalities. Markedly, dissociative identity disorder has a prevalence of less than 1% in the general population. Comparatively, this is a small percentage to other disorders such as depression and anxiety disorders. However, if you or a loved one suffers from dissociative identity disorder the percentages mean nothing.

Research characterizes dissociative identity disorder by amnesia, identity confusion, and  coexistence of dissociative identities.

Professionals often discover an association between the characteristic features of dissociative identity disorder and coexisting ailments:

• psychosis
• mood, anxiety, and affect regulation
• personality functioning​

​Dissociative Disorders Not Otherwise Specified

Dissociative disorder not otherwise specified refers to symptoms of a dissociative disorder that doesn’t quite meet full criteria of any of the other categories.

Healing from Dissociation: Therapy and Grounding Techniques

Healing from dissociative disorders is a complex, non-linear process that moves beyond merely managing symptoms to addressing the root disruptions in consciousness and identity caused by trauma (Herman, 1992). While historical approaches often focused on the dramatic presentation of symptoms, modern evidence-based treatment emphasizes a structured, safety-first approach designed to restore integrated functioning and reconnect the individual with their body and the present moment (Levine, 1997).

The Phase-Oriented Treatment Model

The expert consensus for treating Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) and severe dissociative variations is a phase-oriented approach (2011). This framework serves as a roadmap to prevent the patient from being overwhelmed by traumatic material before they have the coping skills to handle it.

Phase 1: Safety, Stabilization, and Symptom Reduction: The priority is establishing a therapeutic alliance, ensuring personal safety, and building affect regulation skills. This phase focuses on “grounding” the patient in the present and managing life crises rather than immediately uncovering trauma (2011).

Phase 2: Confronting and Integrating Traumatic Memories: Once stability is achieved, therapy moves toward processing traumatic memories. This involves “synthesis”—bringing together the fragmented elements of memory (emotions, sensations, and images) into a coherent narrative (2011).

Phase 3: Integration and Rehabilitation: The final phase focuses on consolidating gains, achieving a stable sense of self, and improving daily life functioning. The goal is often “integrated functioning,” where alternate identities communicate and coordinate, or “final fusion,” where identities merge into a unified self (2011).

Therapeutic Modalities

Psychotherapy and Relational Approaches

Individual outpatient psychotherapy is the primary treatment modality for DID (2011). Because trauma often occurs within the context of attachment failures, the therapeutic relationship itself is a central vehicle for healing (Purcell et al., 2024). Therapy aims to repair the patient’s ability to trust and to “uncouple” the automatic freezing response associated with fear (Levine, 2009; 2012). By re-establishing defensive and orienting responses that were thwarted during the trauma, patients can release the “bound energy” of the traumatic reaction (Levine, 2009).

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR)

While EMDR is effective for PTSD, standard protocols can be dangerous for dissociative patients if not modified, potentially causing flooding or destabilization (2011). Modified approaches, such as the Progressive Approach, are recommended. This method focuses first on processing “dissociative phobias” (fear of the inner experience or parts) and stabilizing the patient before targeting traumatic memories (Gonzalez-Vazquez, 2018). Research indicates that integrating EMDR procedures into stabilization groups can significantly improve subjective well-being (Gonzalez-Vazquez, 2018).

See EMDR for more information on this treatment modality

Somatic and Body-Oriented Therapies

Dissociation often manifests as a disconnection from the body; therefore, healing requires reconnecting with physical sensations . Somatic Experiencing and Sensorimotor Psychotherapy help patients track bodily sensations (the “felt sense”) to discharge trapped survival energy (Levine, 2012, Rossman, 2000, Levine, 1997). These therapies utilize titration (touching into small amounts of distress) and pendulation (moving between distress and resources) to build resilience without overwhelming the nervous system (Levine, 2012).

Cognitive Behavioral and Schema Therapies

Recent adaptations of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Schema Therapy (ST) challenge the view that stabilization must always be lengthy. Some models view dissociation as an avoidant coping strategy and encourage patients to take active control of dissociative responses during exposure to traumatic memories (Bachrach & Huntjens, 2025). Schema Therapy reformulates identity states as “schema modes,” validating the patient’s experience while working toward integration using techniques like imagery rescripting (Arntz & Jacob, 2013).

Grounding and Stabilization Techniques

Grounding is the process of bringing insight or awareness “down to earth,” making the imaginary real and connecting the individual to present reality (Murphy, 2025; Rossman, 2000). It is a critical skill for managing flashbacks and dissociation.

• Orienting to the Here and Now: Patients are encouraged to use their senses to connect with the external environment. This stimulates the “exploratory-orienting response,” engaging the eyes and senses to assess safety in the present moment, which can disrupt panic and dissociation (Levine, 1997).
• Dual Awareness: This involves maintaining a connection to the present (e.g., feeling the chair, seeing the room) while simultaneously acknowledging internal sensations or memories. This prevents the patient from getting lost in the traumatic past (Levine, 1997).
• Developing “Safe Places”: Utilizing guided imagery to create an internal sanctuary allows patients to self-soothe and contain overwhelming affect (2011, Rossman, 2000).
• Physical Engagement: Simple actions like taking a pulsing shower and focusing awareness on the skin’s sensation can help “call the spirit back to the body,” bridging the split between body and mind (Levine, 1997).

The Role of Medication

There are no medications approved specifically to treat dissociative symptoms directly (Purcell et al., 2024). Pharmacotherapy is generally adjunctive, used to manage comorbid symptoms such as depression, severe anxiety, or PTSD hyperarousal (2011). However, some research suggests that opioid antagonists (e.g., naltrexone) may be effective in reducing dissociative symptoms such as depersonalization and flashbacks in some patients (Purcell et al., 2024).

Associated Concepts

• Trauma Model: This model focuses on traumatic experiences as the primary cause of dissociation. It suggests that dissociation is a coping mechanism for overwhelming stress or trauma, allowing individuals to detach from reality as a form of psychological escape.
• Biopsychosocial Model: This model considers a broader range of factors, including social, cognitive, and cultural influences. It posits that learning, social interactions, and media portrayals of dissociation shape dissociative symptoms.
• Acute Stress Disorder: This is a condition that can occur in the immediate aftermath of a traumatic event, with symptoms similar to PTSD but typically lasting for a shorter duration, from days to one month.
• Trauma Resiliency Model: This is a therapeutic approach that focuses on building resilience and promoting healing in individuals who have experienced trauma. It emphasizes the natural and innate capacity of individuals to heal from trauma when provided with the right support and resources.
• Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs): This refers to childhood events that lead to cognitive struggles later in life.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): This is a mental health condition triggered by a terrifying event, either by experiencing it or witnessing it. Symptoms may include flashbacks, nightmares, severe anxiety, and uncontrollable thoughts about the event.

A Few Words by Psychology Fanatic

In conclusion, dissociative disorders represent a complex and multifaceted spectrum of conditions that challenge our understanding of the human psyche. From the disruption of memory and identity to the profound experiences of depersonalization and derealization, these disorders offer a window into the intricate mechanisms of the mind when faced with trauma and stress. As we continue to explore the depths of dissociation through the lenses of psychology, neuroscience, and personal narratives, it is our hope that this comprehensive examination has shed light on the nuanced realities faced by those living with these conditions.

The journey toward understanding dissociative disorders is ongoing, and it is one that requires compassion, curiosity, and a commitment to advancing both clinical practice and research. By embracing the complexity of these disorders, we can move closer to effective treatments and a greater empathy for the diverse experiences of mental health. May this article serve as a stepping stone for further inquiry and a beacon of hope for those seeking to navigate the often turbulent waters of dissociation.

Last Update: January 29, 2026

References:

Adler, Alfred (1920/2011). The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology. ‎Martino Fine Books. ISBN-10: 1614271437; APA Record: 1924-15018-000
(Return to Main Text)

Arntz, A. & Jacob, G. (2013). Schema Therapy for Personality Disorders—A Review. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 6(2), 171-185. DOI: 10.1521/ijct.2013.6.2.171
(Return to Main Text)

Atchison, M., & McFarlane, A. (2016). A Review of Dissociation and Dissociative Disorders. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 28(4), 591-599. DOI: 10.1080/00048679409080782
(Return to Main Text)

Bachrach, N.; Huntjens, R.J.C. (2025) Recent evidence-based developments in the treatment of DID. Front. Psychiatry 16:1650164. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1650164
(Return to Main Text)

Courtois, C. (2008). Complex Trauma, Complex Reactions: Assessment and Treatment. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, S(1), 86-100. DOI: 10.1037/1942-9681.S.1.86
(Return to Main Text)

Freud, Sigmund; Breuer, Josef (1895/2004). Studies in Hysteria. Penguin Classics; 1st Printing edition. ISBN: 9780142437490; APA Record: 1957-05378-000
(Return to Main Text)

Gonzalez-Vazquez, A.I.; Rodriguez-Lago, L.; Seoane-Pillado, M.T.; Fernández, I.; García-Guerrero, F.; Santed-Germán, M.A. (2018). The Progressive Approach to EMDR Group Therapy for Complex Trauma and Dissociation: A Case-Control Study. Front. Psychol. 8:2377. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02377
(Return to Main Text)

​Heller, Lawrence; LaPierre, Aline (2012). Healing Developmental Trauma: How Early Trauma Affects Self-Regulation, Self-Image, and the Capacity for Relationship. North Atlantic Books; 1st edition. ISBN-10: 1583944893
(Return to Main Text)

Herman, Judith Lewis (1992). Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence—from Domestic Abuse to Political Terror. Basic Books. ISBN: 9780465087655; APA Record: 2015-30136-000
(Return to Main Text)

Janoff-Bulman, Ronnie (2002). Shattered Assumptions (Towards a New Psychology of Trauma). Free Press; Completely Updated ed. edition. ISBN-10: 0743236254; APA Record: 1992-97250-000
(Return to Main Text)

Karr-Morse, Robin; Wiley, Meredith S. (2014). Ghosts from the Nursery: Tracing the Roots of Violence. Atlantic Monthly Press; 1st edition. ISBN-10: 0802196330
(Return to Main Text)

Kihlstrom, J. (2005). Dissociative Disorders. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 227-253. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143925
(Return to Main Text)

Levine, Peter A. (2009). Panic, Biology, and Reason: Giving the Body Its Due. The USA Body Psychotherapy Journal, 2(2), 5-14. (PDF)
(Return to Main Text)

Levine, Peter A. (2012). In an Unspoken Voice: How the Body Releases Trauma and Restores Goodness. North Atlantic Books; 1st edition. ISBN: 9781556439438
(Return to Main Text)

Lynn, S., Lilienfeld, S., Merckelbach, H., Giesbrecht, T., & van der Kloet, D. (2012). Dissociation and Dissociative Disorders. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(1), 48-53. DOI: 10.1177/0963721411429457
(Return to Main Text)

Murphy, T. Franklin (2021) The Diathesis-Stress Model: The Link Between Vulnerabilities and Stress. Psychology Fanatic. Published: 9-7-2021; Accessed: 12-7-2022. Website: https://psychologyfanatic.com/diathesis-stress-model/
(Return to Main Text)

Murphy, T. Franklin (2025). Grounding: A Path to Emotional Stability. Published: 4-1-2025; Accessed: 1-29-2026. Website: https://psychologyfanatic.com/grounding/
(Return to Main Text)

Petric, Domina (2022). Dissociation, Dissociative Disorders and Partial Psychosis. Open Journal of Medical Psychology. DOI: 10.4236/ojmp.2022.114018
(Return to Main Text)

Purcell, J. B., Brand, B., Browne, H. A., Chefetz, R. A., Shanahan, M., Bair, Z. A., … Lebois, L. A. M. (2024). Treatment of dissociative identity disorder: leveraging neurobiology to optimize success. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 24(3), 273–289. DOI: 10.1080/14737175.2024.2316153
(Return to Main Text)

Ross, C., Ridgway, J., & George, N. (2020). Maladaptive Daydreaming, Dissociation, and the Dissociative Disorders. Psychiatric Research & Clinical Practice, 2(2), 53-61. DOI: 10.1176/appi.prcp.20190050
(Return to Main Text)

Rossman, Martin L. (2000). Guided Imagery for Self-Healing: an Essential Resource for Anyone Seeking Wellness. New World Library. ISBN: 091581188X
(Return to Main Text)

Schore, Allan N. (2003). Affect Regulation and the Repair of the Self (Norton Series on Interpersonal Neurobiology). W. W. Norton & Company; First Edition. ISBN: 0393704076; APA Record: 2003-02881-000
(Return to Main Text)

Schore, Allan, N. (2009). Right-Brain Affect Regulation An Essential Mechanism of Development, Trauma, Dissociation, and Psychotherapy. In: Daniel J. Siegel, Marion Solomon, and Diana Fosha (eds.), The Healing Power of Emotion: Affective Neuroscience, Development & Clinical Practice. ‎W. W. Norton & Company; 1st edition. ISBN-10: 039370548X; APA Record: 2009-20446-000
(Return to Main Text)

Tracy, N. (2022). The Amazing History of Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID). HealthyPlace. Published: 1-12-2022. Retrieved: 12-8-2022. Website: https://www.healthyplace.com/abuse/dissociative-identity-disorder/
(Return to Main Text)

Vaillant, George E. (1998) Adaptation to Life. Harvard University Press; Reprint edition. ISBN: 9780674004146
(Return to Main Text)

Dissociative Disorders. Mayo Clinic. Accessed: 11-11-2022. Website: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dissociative-disorders/symptoms-causes/syc-20355215
(Return to Main Text)

International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation (2011). Guidelines for Treating Dissociative Identity Disorder in Adults, Third Revision, Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 12:2, 115-187. DOI: 10.1080/15299732.2011.537247
(Return to Main Text)

Related Articles