Information Processing Theory Explained Simply

Information Processing Theory (IPT) is a cognitive framework that draws parallels between the human mind and computer systems. It describes how individuals take in, process, store, and retrieve information in various stages such as attention, perception, encoding, storage, and retrieval. This theory has been influential in shaping our understanding of human cognition, memory, problem solving, and decision-making processes.

In psychology, it has provided valuable insights into learning mechanisms and mental representation. In the field of education, educators have utilized this theory to design effective instructional strategies and interventions tailored to individual learning styles. Moreover, it has also made significant contributions to the development of artificial intelligence, particularly in the design of cognitive models and information processing systems that mimic human cognitive functions. The interdisciplinary nature of Information Processing Theory has led to its widespread application in fields such as human-computer interaction, cognitive science, and neuroscience, making it a crucial framework for understanding and simulating the complexities of human information processing.

Origins of Information Processing Theory

The roots of IPT can be traced back to the mid-20th century when researchers began using computers as models for understanding human cognition. The advent of digital computing allowed psychologists to explore how information is received through sensory input, processed internally through various mental operations, and ultimately stored in memory for later retrieval. Key figures such as George A. Miller and Ulric Neisser contributed significantly to the development of this theory during its formative years.

In simplest form, information processing theory is a conceptualization of how sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, retrieved, and used. John Birchnell provides a useful description of the theorized flow of information in this model. He wrote, “The classic information-processing model proposes that information from the environment is transferred to sensory registers, one for each sense modality, where it is (unconsciously) analyzed by processes called feature detection and pattern recognition. Information which, by these processes is identified as meaningful and relevant to current goals, is then transferred to a (conscious) structure known as the primary or short-term memory, where it is subject to further analysis. Within this structure it may become combined with additional information, which is retrieved from what is called the secondary or long-term memory.

Three Underlying Components Necessary for Information Processing

H. Lee Swanson describes three necessary conditions for the theory of information processing to work. He explains:

1. A constraint or structural component, akin to the hardware of a computer, which defines the parameters within which information can be processed at a particular stage (e.g., sensory storage, short-term memory, long-term-memory);
2. a control or strategy component, akin to the software of a computer system, which describes the operations of the various stages; and
3. and an executive process, by which learners’ activities (e.g., strategies) are overseen and monitored (Swanson, 1987).

Fundamental Stages of Information Processing Theory

The fundamental stages of information processing theory are sensory input, cognitive processing, storage, and retrieval. Let’s examine each of these stages of information processing.

Input

Our world is composed of a never ending flow of data. Some of this information is important for our survival, signalling danger or opportunity. The organism interacts with the environment through its senses. Accordingly, the first stage of information processing involves receiving stimuli from the environment through our senses—sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell.

We fill our long-term memories with information, structures, and heuristics from observation of stimuli. This refers to more than static images. We also record the dynamic movements and interactions. We record meanings from symbolic language and modeling of behaviors. A young child may perceive the rich flow of stimuli in the environment but has little basis for interpreting the meaning of the information. Slowly through observation and experimenting, the child develops their own repertoire for interpreting the world. This sensory information serves as raw data that enters our cognitive system.

Processing

Once the input is received, it undergoes several processing stages:

Attention

Attention plays a crucial role. Accordingly, attention is a fundamental cognitive tool for filtering and processing information. Through attention, we direct more resources to certain aspects of our environment for more complex processing. A Threatening element naturally catches our attention, diverting resources away from less important aspects of our immediate surroundings. We also give more attention to personally relevant stimuli. For example, in a crowded room, we immediately focus attention on a conversation where we over hear someone say our name. Our name tags the conversation on the other side of the room as important.

Ulric Neisser explains that human beings “behave very differently, and are by no means neutral or passive toward the incoming information. Instead, they select some parts for attention at the expense of others, recoding and reformulating them in complex ways” (Neisser, 1967).

Perception

 Raw data provides little meaning without interpretation. Perception involves organizing and interpreting sensory information received from the environment. After our sensory receptors constantly collect data, but it’s how we interpret that data that affects our interactions with the world.

We unravel the meaning of sensory information through an active process influenced by sensory inputs, prior experiences, and expectations. Our interpretation of stimuli is a process of comparing new information with existing knowledge to create meaning.

T. Franklin Murphy wrote:

“We organize experience (with the associated thoughts, emotions and triggers) into a coherent story, tidying the chaos into usable and logical chunks. These self-created stories give events meaning, tying them to foundational beliefs about ourselves and the world. Memory stores emotions together with explanations to create a mental model so we can better navigate life. Squeezing meaning from the chaos is the essence of wisdom—or sometimes foolishness” (Murphy, 2016).

Encoding

Herbert A. Simon, an influential American social scientist, explains that we must have “a way of representing it in our minds. That representation may be verbal (or propositional), it may be pictorial (or diagrammatic), or it may take many other forms” (Simon, 1995). Once the sensory information is interpreted, we encode it into a form usable by the brain. Birtchnell wrote that the hippocampus “coordinates the sensations from a multiplicity of sources, and the main region that links the hippocampus to the neocortex is called the transition cortex.” This region receives inputs from the “highest stages of neocortical processing in each of the sensory modalities” (Birtchnell, 2004).

LeDoux observed that once a cortical sensory system has done all it can with a stimulus, it ships the information to the transition cortex where the different sensory modalities can be integrated. This encoding allows information to be stored in memory systems, including semantic memory (which holds general knowledge and concepts) (LeDoux, 1998).

Storage

Information can be stored in different types of memory systems:

• Sensory Memory: Holds brief impressions of sensory stimuli (milliseconds to seconds).
• Short-Term Memory (STM): Temporarily holds small amounts of information (about 7 items) for short durations (15–30 seconds) (Miller, 1956). Neisser describes this as “the visual input can be briefly stored in some medium which is subject to very rapid decay. Before it has decayed, information can be read from this medium just as if the stimulus were still active” (Neisser, 1967).
  
  Birtchnell explains that “the primary memory is considered to have an extremely limited capacity for processing information and it is only the staging area for the cognitive system. Information resides in it only so long as it is attended and rehearsed” (Birtchnell, 2004, p. 64).
• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Capable of storing vast amounts of information over extended periods—from minutes to a lifetime. This information may be object specific, basic concepts of self, or beliefs about the world. When processing information, we draw upon these long-term memories to interpret new information.
  
  Robert T. DeMoss explains that the creation of a long-term memory may occur several hours after the event. He explains because of this time lag that a memory may form in an altered version. He explains that “memories change in meaning over time” (DeMoss, 1999, p. 102).
  
  LeDoux wrote that “to the extent that our life’s experiences contribute to who we are, implicit and explicit memory storage constitute key mechanisms through which the self is formed and maintained. Those aspects of the self that are learned and stored in explicit systems constitute the explicit aspects of the self. To be self-aware is to retrieve from long-term memory our understanding of who we are and place it in the forefront of thought” (LeDoux, 2003).

See Explicit Memory System for more information on this topic

Retrieval

This final stage refers to accessing stored information when needed. Retrieval can occur through recognition or recall processes—recognizing familiar cues or actively reconstructing memories without prompts. The retrieval process is the mixing together of current sensories with the encoded information stored in long-term memory.

LeDoux provides the example of encountering a snake. He explains, that the combination of sensory and long-term memory defines the experience. We don’t just retrieve information to identify the animal as a snake but “in addition to being aware of the kind of animal you are looking at, long-term memory also informs you that this kind of animal can be dangerous and that you might be in danger” (LeDoux, 1998).

---

Basically, information process theory follows the flow of information from perception, interpretation, storage, and recall. Each stage is replete with processes that manipulate the information for economical use is learning and decision making. Markedly, the information that we later recall is not a mirror replication of the information originally observed through our senses.

Emotions and Information Processing

Emotions play a critical role in the way we process information, influencing our thoughts, behaviors, and decision-making. Consequently, emotions impact the flow of information through every stage of the processing. Robert Sapolsky, a professor of neurological sciences at Stanford University, explains that while emotion and cognition can “be somewhat separable, they’re rarely in opposition.” These two primary and essential functions of the brain intertwine in “a collaborative relationship” necessary for normal functioning and survival. When tasks associated with both emotive and cognitive components become more difficult, such as making an increasingly complex economic decision in a setting that is increasingly unfair, the activity in “the two structures becomes more synchronized” (Sapolsky, 2018).

LeDoux, an American neuroscientist, renowned for his research on survival circuits and their impact on emotions such as fear and anxiety, explains that the medial prefrontal cortex may “serve as an interface between cognitive and emotional systems, allowing cognitive information processing in the prefrontal cortex to regulate emotional processing by the amygdala” (LeDoux, 2003).

Understanding this interplay between emotions and cognitive processes is essential for grasping how individuals perceive, interpret, and respond to their environment.

Influencing Attention

Emotions significantly affect what we pay attention to in our surroundings. We are more likely to focus on emotionally charged stimuli—whether positive or negative—because these signals often carry important information about potential threats or rewards. For instance:

• Positive Emotions: Joyful experiences can enhance our attention towards similar positive events and encourage exploration.
• Negative Emotions: Fear or anxiety can sharpen our focus on potential dangers while sometimes causing us to overlook neutral or less salient details.

---

This shift in attention ensures that we prioritize information relevant to our emotional state, affecting subsequent processing stages.

Enhancing Memory Encoding

Emotionally significant events tend to be remembered better than neutral ones due to enhanced encoding processes facilitated by the amygdala—the brain region involved in emotion regulation:

• When an event elicits strong emotions (like excitement during a wedding or grief at a funeral), it becomes more deeply encoded into long-term memory.
• Emotional arousal also triggers the release of neurotransmitters like adrenaline and cortisol which can strengthen memory formation. Antonio Damasio explains “provided that a scene has some value, provided that enough emotion was present at the time, the brain will learn multimedia sights, sounds, touches, feels, smells, and the like and will bring them back on cue” (Damasio, 2010,).

---

Consequently, memories tied with heightened emotional experiences are often more vivid and accessible compared to non-emotional counterparts.

Shaping Perception

Our emotional states influence how we perceive situations and interpret incoming information. Damasio explains that emotions influence thoughts. He wrote that some of those thoughts are “components of the emotion program, evoked as the emotion unfolds so that the cognitive context is in keeping with the emotion” (Damasio, 2010).

• Cognitive Biases: Positive moods may lead individuals toward optimistic interpretations of ambiguous situations (e.g., viewing constructive criticism as helpful), whereas negative moods might foster pessimistic views (e.g., interpreting feedback as personal failure).

---

These biases impact decision-making by coloring judgments based on current feelings rather than objective analysis.

Guiding Decision-Making

Emotions serve as crucial guides during decision-making processes:

• They provide an immediate response mechanism that allows individuals to evaluate choices quickly without extensive deliberation—a phenomenon known as “affective reasoning.”

For example:

• A person may choose not to pursue a risky investment after experiencing fear related to financial loss.
• Conversely, someone who feels excited about new opportunities might take calculated risks they otherwise would avoid when feeling indifferent.

---

While emotions can enhance intuitive decisions, they can also cloud judgment if mismanaged—leading people toward impulsive choices driven by transient feelings rather than rational thought.

Facilitating Social Interactions

In social contexts, emotions play vital roles in communication and interpretation of others’ intentions:

• Emotional expressions convey messages beyond words; recognizing cues such as facial expressions helps individuals gauge another’s feelings accurately.

---

Understanding these cues facilitates empathy—allowing us not only comprehend but also connect emotionally with others’ experiences—which enhances interpersonal relationships through shared understanding.

Emotions, Cognitions, and Human Complexity

The integration of emotions within Information Processing Theory underscores the complexity of human cognition; rather than being purely logical entities operating independently from feelings—we operate within intricate webs where emotion shapes perception throughout various stages—from initial attention all the way through retrieval mechanisms embedded deep within psychological frameworks guiding behavior consistently across everyday life scenarios.

Recognizing this interplay highlights why effective communication strategies should consider both cognitive elements alongside emotional considerations for optimal outcomes—in education settings promoting learning environments conducive to student engagement or workplaces fostering collaboration among team members seeking success together amidst challenges faced daily.

Neuroscience of Information Processing

In the context of information processing, several neural mechanisms play crucial roles. Because information processing is a fundamental activity of survival, the whole brain structure is involved. Most new research, while understanding that certain functions may belong to certain regions of the brain, also point to the overall networks that span across multiple regions during processing.

Main Information Processing Events and The Associated Neural Regions

1. Attention Mechanisms:
   • These allow us to selectively focus on specific stimuli while ignoring others.
   • Attention helps determine what information enters our cognitive system.
   • The main attention network in the brain involves connections between parts of the frontal lobe and parietal lobes. These brain regions coordinate selective attention by decoding and interpreting sensory or motor information. Additionally, the inferior frontal junction (IFJ) in the prefrontal cortex plays a role in focused attention on specific categories of objects, such as faces or other visual stimuli
2. Working Memory (WM):
   • WM actively manipulates information, allowing us to hold and process it temporarily.
   • While it was initially associated with the prefrontal cortex (PFC), recent research reveals a more complex picture. The PFC plays a key role in managing the current contents of working memory. Neurons here exhibit persistent activity for seconds to minutes, supporting information retention. Recent findings highlight thalamus involvement. Thalamic neurons with gpr12 receptors underlie working memory processes (Hsiao, 2020).
   • In summary, working memory isn’t confined to a single brain area; it’s a collaborative effort involving multiple regions
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM):
   • LTM stores information for future use.
   • Hippocampus and neocortical regions play key roles in encoding and retrieving memories.
4. Sensory Processing Areas:
   • Visual, auditory, and somatosensory areas process sensory input.
   • Neural networks transform raw sensory data into meaningful representations.
   • These neurons are primarily located in the dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord. The dorsal root ganglia serve as the site where sensory neuron axons terminate, allowing the signal to move from the sensory neuron to the brain and spinal cord.
5. Neural Networks and Circuits:
   • Complex networks of interconnected neurons process and transmit information.
   • Synaptic plasticity (e.g., long-term potentiation) strengthens connections.

---

Remember, our brain’s machinery orchestrates these processes, allowing us to perceive, think, and respond

Critiques and Limitations

While IPT offers valuable insights into cognitive functioning, it also faces critiques:

• Some argue it oversimplifies human cognition by likening it too closely to mechanical processes (Hardcastle, 2004).
• Critics contend that emotional factors influencing cognition are often overlooked within pure informational paradigms (Damasio, 2010).
• Additionally, there’s an ongoing debate about the extent individual differences may impact processing styles across diverse populations.

Associated Concepts

• Executive Functions: This refer to a set of cognitive processes that are responsible for managing and controlling other cognitive abilities. These functions involve tasks such as problem-solving, decision-making, planning, organizing, and impulse control.
• Feature Integration Theory: This theory posits that we first recognize features and then, through attention, integrate them into the whole.
• Behavioral Control Theory: This theory provides a framework that explains how individuals regulate their behavior to achieve specific goals. It’s based on the idea that people have internal mechanisms that monitor and adjust their actions to maintain a desired state.
• Affective Realism: This concept suggests that our emotions deeply influence our perceptions, shaping our judgments and altering the content of our perception. This psychological phenomenon is closely linked to various cognitive processes and can lead to biases in our thinking and decision-making, impacting our interactions and understanding of reality.
• Attentional Control Theory (ACT): This theory explores the influence of anxiety on attention, highlighting the delicate balance between goal-directed and stimulus-driven attentional systems.
• Focusing Illusion: This is a cognitive bias that occurs when individuals place disproportionate importance on one aspect of an event or decision, leading them to overestimate its significance. This can result in an exaggerated impact on their overall perception and judgment, contributing to an inaccurate assessment of the situation.
• Lazarus’ Cognitive Processing Theory: This theory posits that emotions arise not directly from external stimuli, but from our interpretations and evaluations of those stimuli. This “appraisal” process involves two key stages: primary appraisal (assessing the significance of the event—is it irrelevant, positive, or stressful?) and secondary appraisal (evaluating our ability to cope with the event).
• Sensory Processing Disorder: This is a developmental disorder typically beginning in early childhood development. It is characterized by extreme sensitivity or lack of sensitivity to external stimuli
• Mental Maps: These mental representations refer to conceptual spaces, such as social or emotional landscapes, that individuals use to interpret new information. They are formed through personal experiences and cultural factors.

A Few Words by Psychology Fanatic

Information Processing Theory remains a foundational concept in understanding how humans interact with their environments cognitively. By breaking down complex mental activities into manageable components—inputting data accurately while optimizing storage techniques—we gain critical insights not only relevant within psychology but also applicable across multiple disciplines ranging from education to technology development.

As research continues evolving alongside advances in neuroscience and computational modeling techniques—the field stands poised for further exploration into unraveling the complexities behind human thought processes rooted deeply within this enduring theoretical framework.

References:

Birtchnell, John (2004). The Two of Me: The Rational Outer Me and the Emotional Inner Me. Psychology Press; 1st edition.
(Return to Article)

Broadbent, Donald E. (1958). Perception and Communication. Pergamon Press.
(Return to Article)

Damasio, Antonio (2010). Self Comes to Mind: Constructing the Conscious Brain. Vintage; 1st edition.
(Return to Article)

David, Susan (2016). Emotional Agility: Get Unstuck, Embrace Change, and Thrive in Work and Life. Avery; First Edition.
(Return to Article)

DeMoss, Robert T. (1999). Brain Waves Through Time. Basic Books.
(Return to Article)

Epstein, Seymour (1998). Constructive Thinking: The Key to Emotional Intelligence. Praeger.
(Return to Article)

Eysenck, Michael W. (1993). Principles of Cognitive Psychology. Psychology Press; 1st edition. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2001-05465-000
(Return to Article)

Farooqui, Ausaf; Gezici, Tamer; Manly, Tom (2023). Chunking of Control: An Unrecognized Aspect of Cognitive Resource Limits. Journal of Cognition. DOI: 10.5334/joc.275
(Return to Article)

Hardcastle, Valerie (2004). A critique of information processing theories of consciousness. Minds and Machines, 5(1), 89-107. DOI: 10.1007/BF00974191
(Return to Article)

Hsiao, K., Noble, C., Pitman, W., Tolwani, R., Sethupathy, P., & Rajasethupathy, P. (2020). A Thalamic Orphan Receptor Drives Variability in Short-Term Memory. Cell, 183(1), 1-5. DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.09.011
(Return to Article)

LeDoux, Joseph (2003). Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are. Penguin Books.
(Return to Article)

Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81-97. DOI: 10.1037/h0043158
(Return to Article)

​Murphy, T. Franklin (2016). Mental Maps. Psychology Fanatics. Published: 6-2016; Accessed: 8-16-2024. https://psychologyfanatic.com/mental-maps/
(Return to Article)

Neisser, Ulric (1967). Cognitive Psychology. Routledge; 1st edition. DOI: 10.4324/9781315736174
(Return to Article)

Sapolsky, Robert (2018). Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst. Penguin Books; Illustrated edition.
(Return to Article)

Simon, Herbert A. (1995). The Information-Processing Theory of Mind. American Psychologist, 50(7), 507-508. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.50.7.507
(Return to Article)

Speisman, J., Lazarus, R., Mordkoff, A., & Davison, L. (1964). Experimental reduction of stress based on ego-defense theory. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 68(4), 367-380. DOI: 10.1037/h0048936
(Return to Article)

Swanson, H. Lee (1987). Information Processing Theory and Learning Disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20(1), 3-7. DOI: 10.1177/002221948702000102
(Return to Article)