Understanding Emotions: The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule

In the realm of psychology, understanding human emotions and their impact on behavior is crucial. Affect motivates action. We either experience an internal drive to approach or the unease motivating avoidance. Mood, emotion, and behavior on hinge on the inner experiences of arousal. Effective psychology research requires a tool to measure the dynamic movement of affect. Researchers designed the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule to accomplish this task.

The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) has gained prominence as an affect measuring tool. Developed by psychologists David Watson, Lee Anna Clark, and Auke Tellegen in 1988, PANAS provides a comprehensive framework for measuring both positive and negative affectivity.

Introduction to PANAS

Before the interlocution of PANA in the late 1980’s, researchers and therapists often used a retroactive subjective measurement of affect. “How did you feel last week?” The problem with these measurements of past affect is that they are highly influenced by the latest event (recency bias). Frankly, our memory of the past feeling just isn’t that accurate. Alison M. Haney and her colleagues explain that there is “widespread agreement that affective or emotional experience fluctuates both within and across days and is influenced by factors that are both internal (e.g., context, environment) to the individual” (Haney et al., 2023).

Early theories of emotions drawn from self-reported affective states have “typically concluded that there are between six and twelve independent monopolar factors of affect, such as degree of sadness, anxiety, anger, elation, tension, and the like” (Russell, 1980). As research on affect developed, many scientists began to shy away from an extensive list of basic emotions, suggesting the emotions were more likely constructions from cognitive processes. Daniel Siegel, a clinical professor of psychiatry at the UCLA School of Medicine, explains the processes in terms of emotional valence. He wrote that at the most basic level, “valence can be labeled as good and involve approach, or can be labeled as bad and involve withdrawal” (Siegel, 2020).

Independent Dimensions of Positive and Negative Affect

The authors of PANAS designed it to use at different points to capture a snapshot of two primary dimensions of affect: positive and negative. An important foundational concept underlying the PANAS model is that low positive affect is not synonymous with negative affect. Positive affect and negative affect are two distinct states (Bradburn, 1969).

Following a pilot study measuring affect, Dr. Norman Bradburn explains that analysis of the pilot study data “indicated that not only were variations in positive and negative affect independent of one another but that, on the whole, the two dimensions were correlated with different variables.” The study found that the variables which were related to the presence or absence of positive affect had “no relationship to the presence or absence of negative affect, while the variables which were related to the presence or absence of negative affect had a similar lack of relationship to positive affect” (Bradburn, 1969, p. 10).

Consequently, an individual can experience low positive affect without measuring high on negative affect. Watson, Clark, and Tellegen explain that High PA is “a state of high energy, full concentration, and pleasurable engagement, whereas low PA is characterized by sadness and lethargy.” In contrast, Negative Affect (NA) is “a general dimension of subjective distress and unpleasurable engagement that subsumes a variety of averse mood states, including anger, contempt, disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness, with low NA being a state of calmness and serenity” (Watson et al., 1988).

What is PANAS?

The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule consists of two mood scales—one measuring positive affect (PA) and the other measuring negative affect (NA). The scale comprises 20 items: 10 items assess positive feelings such as enthusiasm, alertness, and inspiration, while the other 10 evaluate negative feelings like anger, guilt, fear, and sadness.

Respondents rate each item based on how they felt over a specified time frame—typically within the past week or today—using a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (very slightly or not at all) to 5 (extremely).

Structure of PANAS

• Positive Affect Scale: This dimension reflects high-energy feelings characterized by enthusiasm and engagement. Higher scores indicate greater levels of joyfulness and excitement.
• Negative Affect Scale: In contrast, this section captures low-energy feelings associated with distress. Elevated scores suggest higher levels of discomfort or negativity.

The Twenty Items

1. Interested 
2. Distressed 
3. Excited
4. Upset
5. Strong
6. Guilty
7. Scared
8. Hostile
9. Enthusiastic
10. Proud
11. Irritable
12. Alert
13. Ashamed
14. Inspired
15. Nervous
16. Determined
17. Attentive
18. Jittery
19. Active
20. Afraid (Watson et al.,1988).

Importance of Measuring Affects

Understanding both positive and negative affects can help researchers identify patterns related to mental health outcomes. Here are some key reasons why PANAS is an essential tool:

• Mental Health Assessment: High levels of negative affect have been linked to various psychological disorders such as anxiety depression. Conversely, strong positive affect correlates with better psychological well-being.
• Research Versatility: The PANAS scale can be utilized across diverse populations—from clinical settings to general surveys—making it adaptable for different research purposes.
• Mood Tracking: By allowing individuals to track their emotional changes over time using PANAS results can facilitate personal insights into mood fluctuations triggered by life events or stressors.
• Intervention Evaluation: Researchers can use PANAS before-and-after interventions aimed at enhancing well-being to assess effectiveness through shifts in reported levels of PA or NA.

Applications in Psychology

PANAS has been widely used in empirical studies examining various aspects of human experience:

• Workplace Dynamics: Research indicates that employees exhibiting high positive affect tend to be more productive; conversely, those experiencing heightened negative affect may struggle with job satisfaction.
• Clinical Settings: Therapeutic practices often focus on increasing clients’ awareness about their emotional states as part of cognitive-behavioral therapy; thus incorporating PANAS allows therapists to measure progress objectively.
• Health Psychology: Studies link overall well-being—with emphasis on positive emotions—to physical health benefits such as improved immune function or lower cardiovascular risk factors.

Associated Concepts

• Negative Affect: This refers to the subjective experience of discomforting emotional states. We consider experiencing emotions such as anxiety, depression, stress, sadness, worry, guilt, shame, anger, and envy as negative affect.
• Positive Emotions: These refer to feelings and mental states characterized by optimism, joy, gratitude, hope, love, and contentment. They play a crucial role in promoting overall well-being and psychological resilience.
• Affective Events Theory: This theory is a psychological model that suggests that workplace events can trigger emotional reactions in employees, which in turn can influence their job performance and satisfaction.
• Broaden-and-Build Theory: This theory suggests that positive emotions broaden one’s awareness and encourage novel, varied, and exploratory thoughts and actions. Over time, this broadened behavioral repertoire builds skills and resources.
• The Circumplex Model of Affect: This is a psychological framework that seeks to map emotions based on two key dimensions: arousal and valence. Arousal refers to the level of activation or energy associated with an emotion, while valence pertains to its positive or negative quality.
• Emotional Valence: This refers to the positive or negative balance of a feeling affect. When an emotion produces negative affect, we refer to the emotion as having a ‘negative valance.’
• Appraisal Theories: These theories suggest that emotions result from our appraisal of a situation, which determines the emotional valence. For example, if an individual appraises an event as beneficial, it will have a positive valence, whereas harmful events will have a negative valence.
• Affective Neuroscience: Pioneered by Jaak Panksepp, this approach studies the neural mechanisms of emotion and identifies several core emotional systems in the brain, each associated with a different valence. For instance, the SEEKING system is linked to positive valence, while the FEAR system is linked to negative valence.

A Few Words by Psychology Fanatic

The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule serves as an invaluable instrument for psychologists seeking deeper insights into emotional functioning. By simultaneously capturing dimensions of both positivity and negativity, it offers a nuanced perspective essential for understanding mental health dynamics across varied contexts—from individual assessments to large-scale research initiatives. As we continue exploring human emotion’s intricate landscapes through tools like PANAS, we pave the way toward enhanced psychological resilience strategies tailored for diverse populations facing life’s challenges head-on.

Last Update: September 1, 2025

References:

Bradburn, Norman M. (1969). The Structure of Psychological Well-Being. Aldine Publishing Company.
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Haney, A., Fleming, M., Wycoff, A., Griffin, S., & Trull, T. (2023). Measuring Affect in Daily Life: A Multilevel Psychometric Evaluation of the PANAS-X Across Four Ecological Momentary Assessment Samples. Psychological Assessment, 35(6), 469-483. DOI: 10.1037/pas0001231
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Russell, James A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(6), 1161-1178. DOI: 10.1037/h0077714
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Siegel, Daniel J. (2020). The Developing Mind: How Relationships and the Brain Interact to Shape Who We Are. The Guilford Press; 3rd edition.
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Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and Validation of Brief Measures of Positive and Negative Affect: the PANAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
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