Emotions vary in two important ways: how pleasant or unpleasant they feel, and how activated or calm they are. In psychology, these two dimensions are called valence and arousal.

The circumplex model of affect, developed by James Russell, maps emotions within this two-dimensional space. Valence runs from unpleasant to pleasant. Arousal runs from low activation to high activation. Together, these dimensions help explain why emotions such as calm, excitement, sadness, and anger feel different from one another.

This model is useful because it gives us a simple visual language for emotion. Instead of treating each feeling as completely separate, the circumplex model shows how emotions relate to one another by their level of energy and their emotional tone.

Valence and Arousal: Quick Explanation

Valence describes the emotional tone of an experience. Positive valence feels pleasant, desirable, or rewarding. Negative valence feels unpleasant, painful, threatening, or aversive.

Arousal describes the level of activation in the body and mind. High-arousal emotions feel energized, intense, alert, or agitated. Low-arousal emotions feel quiet, slowed, relaxed, or subdued.

Together, valence and arousal create a simple emotional map. For example, excitement is usually high in arousal and positive in valence. Calmness is low in arousal and positive in valence. Anxiety is high in arousal and negative in valence. Sadness is usually lower in arousal and negative in valence.

What Is the Circumplex Model?

Early theories of emotions drawn from “self-reported affective states have typically concluded that there are between six and twelve independent monopolar factors of affect, such as degree of sadness, anxiety, anger, elation, tension, and the like” (Russell, 1980).

In 1954, Harold Schlosberg broke from the traditional mold of mapping emotions. He suggested that “instead of treating emotion as a special state, differing qualitatively from other states, the theory locates behavior on a continuum that includes all behavior. This continuum, general level of activation, has its low end in sleep, its middle ranges in alert attention, and its high end in strong emotions” (Schlosberg, 1954).

Schlosberg also posits that emotion should be further evaluated by direction of behavior and facial expressions. A few decades later, James Russell expanding on the Schlosberg’s activation theory of emotion, creating the circumplex model of affect. The Circumplex Model posits that emotions can be mapped along two primary axes: arousal and valence.

Imagine a celestial map—a mandala of feelings. In Russell’s model, emotions are distributed in a two-dimensional circular space. Each emotion finds its spot based on its valence (pleasantness or unpleasantness) and arousal (calmness or intensity). Lisa Feldman Barrett, Ph.D., explains that “your affect is always some combination of valence and arousal” (Barrett, 2018). 

Daniel Siegel, a clinical professor of psychiatry at the UCLA School of Medicine, explains that the primary emotional experience is “one of increased energy and alertness.” Following the arousal, the brain must further “appraise the meaning of the stimulus and of the aroused state itself.” From the appraisal, primary emotions are “experienced as developing ‘hedonic tone’ or ‘valence.’” The process of appraisal gives emotions their “internal quality of being positive or negative” (Siegel, 2020).

How to Read the Circumplex Model Diagram

The circumplex model can be read like a simple emotion map. The horizontal line represents valence. Emotions on the right side feel more pleasant or rewarding. Emotions on the left side feel more unpleasant or aversive.

The vertical line represents arousal. Emotions near the top of the diagram involve higher activation, energy, urgency, or intensity. Emotions near the bottom involve lower activation, quietness, fatigue, or calm.

• Upper right: pleasant and high arousal, such as excitement, enthusiasm, joy, or elation.
• Lower right: pleasant and low arousal, such as calmness, contentment, ease, or serenity.
• Lower left: unpleasant and low arousal, such as sadness, boredom, fatigue, or discouragement.
• Upper left: unpleasant and high arousal, such as anxiety, anger, fear, or agitation.

The closer two emotions are on the diagram, the more similar they are in emotional tone and energy. The farther apart they are, the more different they tend to feel. This is why calmness and contentment sit near each other, while calmness and panic occupy very different regions of the emotional field.

Why the Circumplex Model Matters

The circumplex model is useful because it helps people describe emotions with more precision. Many people know whether they feel “bad,” but they may not know whether the feeling is high-arousal anxiety, low-arousal sadness, irritated tension, or exhausted discouragement. Each emotional state may call for a different response.

For example, a high-arousal negative state such as anxiety may require grounding, breathing, movement, or problem-solving. A low-arousal negative state such as sadness may require rest, social support, meaning-making, or gentle activation. A high-arousal positive state such as excitement may energize approach and creativity, while a low-arousal positive state such as calm may support recovery and reflection.

In this way, the model supports emotional awareness and emotion regulation. It does not tell us everything about an emotion, but it gives us a useful starting point for asking, “How pleasant or unpleasant is this feeling?” and “How activated or calm is my body right now?”

The Axes Explained

Arousal Axis

Arousal is a physiological state. Accordingly, arousal is correlated with neural activity. The ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) in the brainstem plays a key role, along with neurotransmitter systems like norepinephrine, acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin, and histamine. These systems regulate wakefulness, alertness, and sensory responsiveness. Additionally, structures like the posterior cortex, limbic system, and basal forebrain contribute to cortical activity and overall arousal.

The arousal axis specifically pertains to the level of activation or alertness associated with different emotional states. The level of arousal is associated with the importance of the stimuli that is activating our response.

Joseph LeDoux explains the things we attend to and remember are “the things that are important to us.” This is because cognitive processing is accompanied by emotional arousal. Emotional arousal is not stop a passing simple reaction but an element often used “to guide our behavior toward or away from the situation that the emotionally arousing stimulus signifies” (LeDoux, 2002).

In this model, the arousal dimension ranges from low to high levels of activation:

• Low Arousal: Emotions in this category are associated with feelings of calmness, relaxation, and tranquility. Examples include contentment, boredom, and sadness. These emotions typically involve a lower heart rate and reduced physiological activity.
• High Arousal: Conversely, emotions characterized by high arousal are linked to heightened energy levels and increased physiological responses. Examples include excitement, anger, fear, and joy. These emotions often trigger fight-or-flight responses and elevate heart rates.

Overall, the arousal axis is crucial for categorizing feelings based on their energetic quality—helping us grasp both our own emotional states as well as those expressed by others.

Valence Axis

In James Russell’s Circumplex Model of Affect, the valence axis represents the dimension of pleasantness versus unpleasantness in emotional experiences. Siegel explains that at the most basic level, “valence can be labeled as good and involve approach, or can be labeled as bad and involve withdrawal” (Siegel, 2020). This corresponds with Schlosberg’s concept of direction of behavior. The positive valence motivates action of seizing opportunity while the negative valence is protective in nature.

This axis helps categorize emotions based on how positively or negatively they are perceived.

The valence dimension ranges from negative to positive:

• Negative Valence: Emotions with a negative valence are associated with unpleasant feelings and often provoke discomfort or distress. Examples include sadness, anger, fear, and disgust. These emotions typically reflect adverse situations or reactions that individuals seek to avoid.
• Positive Valence: In contrast, emotions characterized by positive valence are tied to pleasant feelings and often result in enjoyment or satisfaction. Examples include happiness, excitement, love, and contentment. These emotions generally arise from favorable circumstances or fulfilling experiences.

The valence axis is essential for distinguishing between how people feel emotionally—whether those feelings contribute to their overall sense of well-being or detract from it—and provides insight into motivation and behavioral responses related to different emotional states. Understanding where specific emotions lie on this axis can aid in emotion regulation strategies and enhance interpersonal communication by clarifying emotional expressions and their implications.

See Emotional Valence for more on this topic

Combination of the Two Axes (Quadrants)

This visualization aids researchers and practitioners in comprehending not just what people feel but also how intensely they experience those feelings. Understanding where specific emotions fall on the circumplex can enhance emotion regulation strategies in various contexts such as therapy or personal development.

When combined, these two dimensions create a comprehensive map of emotional experiences:

• Quadrant I (High Arousal/Positive Valence): This quadrant contains emotions that are high in pleasantness and high in arousal. These emotions include excitement, enthusiasm, and other positively charged states that get our hearts racing and our spirits lifted.
• Quadrant II (Low Arousal/Positive Valence): This quadrant contains emotions that are high in pleasantness and low in arousal. These emotions include calmness, contentment, and serene states that evoke a sense of peacefulness and relaxation.
• Quadrant III (High Arousal/Negative Valence): This quadrant contains emotions that are high in unpleasantness and low in arousal. These emotions include feelings of sadness, boredom, and lethargy.
• Quadrant IV (Low Arousal/Negative Valence): This quadrant contains emotions that are high in unpleasantness and high in arousal. These emotions include anxiety, fear, and intense agitation.

Limits of the Circumplex Model

Although the circumplex is helpful in identifying and understanding emotion, we must not forget that the circumstance is a conceptual model. Each incident of emotion, such as sadness, is dynamic both in arousal and valence. Basically, the experience of sadness is not uniform. Russell wrote that in using self-report that each word describing emotion “appears to lack shape boundaries in the sense that it was possible to place it in a number of categories” (Russell, 1980).

Identifying feeling states, even with the circumplex, is highly subjective. Culture and experience all play into the subjective measuring of emotion.

Beyond the Binary

Mixed Emotions: But life isn’t monochromatic. Sometimes, emotions blend like watercolors on a canvas. The Circumplex Model acknowledges these hybrids—mixed emotions that defy neat categorization. Picture joy and sorrow holding hands, their dance steps intricate yet harmonious. In this emotional tango, adjacent feelings share a quadrant, whispering secrets across the divide.

Associated Concepts

• Positive Emotions: these are feeling affects and mental states characterized by optimism, joy, gratitude, hope, love, and contentment. They play a crucial role in promoting overall well-being and psychological resilience.
• Negative Affect: This is the subjective experience of discomforting emotional states. We consider experiencing emotions such as anxiety, depression, stress, sadness, worry, guilt, shame, anger, and envy as negative affect.
• Behavioral Activation System: This is a theorized neurological system activated in response to the signals of reward, motivating approach behaviors.
• Affective Neuroscience: This is the science of how the brain processes emotions. Affective neuroscience addresses the affective aspects of the physical brain, and the corresponding cognitive processes of the mind.
• Smoke Detector Principle: This is an evolutionary psychology concept that posits that the brain’s defense systems (like anxiety and the startle reflex) are biased toward “False Alarms.” Because the cost of ignoring a real threat is much higher than the cost of responding to a non-existent one.
• Cognitive Arousal Theory: these theories explore the link between cognition, emotion, and physiological arousal. Proposed by Schachter and Singer, it emphasizes the role of cognitive interpretation in shaping emotional experiences.
• Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance Model: this model, developed by Albert Mehrabian and James A. Russell, measures emotions using three dimensions: Pleasure, Arousal, and Dominance. By understanding these dimensions, we gain insights into emotional experiences and their impact on behavior and decision-making.

A Few Words by Psychology Fanatic

The Circumplex Model of Arousal and Valence provides an accessible framework for understanding our rich tapestry of emotional experiences. By mapping feelings onto dimensions of arousal and valence, individuals gain clarity about their own emotional landscapes while professionals across fields harness its power for practical applications—from therapy sessions to marketing strategies.

As we continue exploring human emotions’ intricacies through models like these—and further research unfolds—we enrich our understanding not just academically but also personally—leading us toward healthier relationships with ourselves and others around us.

As we embark on this journey through the Circumplex Model, let us remember that emotions are our compass, guiding us through the labyrinth of existence. Whether we pirouette with delight or grapple with despair, each emotion paints a stroke on the canvas of our lives. 

Last Update: July 6, 2026

References:

Barrett, Lisa Feldman (2017). How Emotions Are Made: The Secret Life of the Brain. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN: 9780544133310
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LeDoux, Joseph (2002). Synaptic self: How our brains become who we are. Viking. ISBN: 9780670030286
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Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(6), 1161-1178. DOI: 10.1037/h0077714
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Schlosberg, Harold (1954). Three dimensions of emotion. Psychological Review, 61(2), 81-88. DOI: 10.1037/h0054570
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Siegel, Daniel J. (2020). The Developing Mind: How Relationships and the Brain Interact to Shape Who We Are. The Guilford Press; 3rd edition. ISBN: 9781462542758
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