Introduction to Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance Theory

The Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance model (PAD) developed by Albert Mehrabian and James A. Russell, is a psychological framework used to describe and measure emotional states. The model uses three numerical dimensions—Pleasure, Arousal, and Dominance—to represent all emotions.

Many of the cognitive-emotion theories suggest that we appraise an emotion on two dimensions: valence and arousal. Lisa Feldman Barrett PhD explains that your affect is always “some combination of valence and arousal” (Barrett, 2018).

PAD adds the third dimension of dominance to the measurement of emotions. However, PAD is not an appraisal theory but a theoretical framework for measuring emotion. Mehrabian explains the purpose of this theory this way, “since a combination of discrete emotional states (e.g., anger, depression, elation, fear, relaxation) cannot be averaged meaningfully, a conceptual system is needed to identify basic dimensions of emotions” (Mehrabian, 1996).

Mehrabian and Russell explain that all emotions can be described through these three dimensions. They wrote:

“Additional terms describing a diversity of emotional reactions to situations may be defined in terms of these three basic dimensions. Thus, for example, the feeling of boredom or fatigue may be described as one that is low on pleasure, arousal, and dominance. On the other hand, excitement may be characterized as an emotional state of high pleasure, arousal, and dominance. Anxiety and stress rate high on arousal, but low on pleasure and dominance. Relaxation, contentment, and comfort rate high on pleasure and dominance but low on arousal” (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974, p. 17).

Pleasure-Displeasure Scale

Let’s delve into the Pleasure-Displeasure Scale within the context of the Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance (PAD) model. In psychology, we refer to this as the valence of a feeling effect. Basically, it refers to whether the feeling affect is pleasurable or discomforting. We see this concept in psychology in theories of motivation surrounding pleasure and pain. Anna Freud wrote that the sovereign principle which “governs the psychic processes is that of obtaining pleasure” (Freud, 1936).

Anna Freud’s father, Sigmund Freud, proposed that when the current situation “does not satisfy our needs, we experience a state of tension. Freud wrote, “the course of mental processes is automatically regulated by the pleasure-principle.” Accordingly, any given process “originates in an unpleasant state of tension and thereupon determines for itself such a path that its ultimate issue coincides with a relaxation of this tension, i.e. with avoidance of pain or with production of pleasure” (Freud. 1920).

From the earlier work of Gustav Theodor Fechner, Freud quotes, “Conscious impulses always bear a relation to conditions of pleasure or pain; pleasure or pain may be thought of in psycho-physical relationship to conditions of stability or instability” (Freud, 1920).

Our biological impulsive needs seeking pleasure or dodging pain often focus on the present, ignoring long term consequences. Catherine D. Rawn and Kathleen D. Vohs wrote that impulses “have ‘strong incentive value’ that is hedonic and prepares the person to go toward the arousing stimulus” (Rawn & Vohs, 2017). Sander L. Koole, Lotte F. Van Dillon and Gal Sheppes explain that hedonic needs are “invariably oriented toward a positive hedonic balance in the immediate present” (Koole et al., 2017).

The Basics of Pleasure-Displeasure Scale

• Pleasure-Displeasure:
  1. This dimension captures how pleasant or unpleasant an individual feels about something.
  2. Examples:
     • Joy: A pleasant emotion.
     • Anger and fear: Both score on the displeasure side.
  3. It’s like a spectrum from delightful smiles to furrowed brows.

In summary, the Pleasure-Displeasure Scale helps us understand the emotional flavor—whether it’s sweet, bitter, or somewhere in between.

Arousal-Nonarousal Scale

the arousal-nonarousal scale refers to the continuum of activation levels experienced by an individual. Arousal is a signal of importance. The more intense the arousal the louder the signal. High arousal suggests that there is something in the environment that must be addressed. This may be a significant opportunity or a menacing threat.

Bessel van der Kolk, M.D., explains that we need “to register and act on our physical sensations to keep our bodies safe. Realizing we’re cold compels us to put on a sweater; feeling hungry or spacey tells us our blood sugar is low and spurs us to get a snack; the pressure of a full bladder sends us to the bathroom” (van der Kolk, 2015).

Aaron Beck, the father of cognitive psychology, provided this example. If a driver is driving a car at a certain rate of speed that exceeds their competence is driving, they experience a sense of loss of control which provokes anxiety. The heightened physiological arousal motivates behavior to regain a sense of control. In this case, the driver lets up on the accelerated and the car slows (Levine, 2009).

Let’s break it down:

• Arousal:
  1. High Arousal: When you’re energetic, alert, and mentally engaged.
  2. Examples: Excitement during a thrilling movie, intense exercise, or a heated debate.
  3. Physiologically, high arousal involves increased heart rate, adrenaline release, and heightened sensory awareness.
• Nonarousal (Low Arousal):
  1. When you’re calm, relaxed, and less mentally active.
  2. Examples: Reading a book by the fireplace, meditating, or lying down to rest.
  3. Physiologically, low arousal corresponds to a slower heart rate and reduced stimulation.

Remember, arousal interacts with pleasure and dominance to shape our emotional experiences. So, whether you’re dancing at a concert (high arousal) or peacefully sipping tea (low arousal), your emotional state dances along this scale! 

Dominance-Submissiveness Scale

the Dominance-Submissiveness Scale represents the degree of control or influence an individual perceives in a given situation. Mehrabian and Russell acknowledge the use of dominance as a dimension of emotions is somewhat novel. They describe the dominance as an individual’s feeling of “dominance in a situation is based on the extent to which he feels unrestricted or free to act in a variety of ways.” This feeling, however, can be hampered by “settings that limit the forms of behavior and enhanced by settings that facilitate a greater variety of behaviors” (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974).

In 2014, after conducting a critical review of the literature, Iris Bakker and her colleagues found that research shows that dominance is as “legitimate an environmental descriptor as pleasure and arousal” (Bakker et al., 2014).

We can imagine how a negative valence, high arousal, and low dominance (helplessness) can ignite a reaction of panic. In contrast, negative valence, high arousal, and high dominance may motivate a different response, such as anger.

Let’s explore it further:

1. Dominance:
   1. High Dominance: When you feel in control, assertive, and able to influence events.
      • Example: Leading a team meeting, making decisions confidently.
   2. Low Dominance: When you feel submissive, yielding, or less influential.
      • Example: Following instructions, deferring to someone else’s judgment.
2. Submissiveness:
   1. Submissiveness is the counterpart to dominance.
   2. It reflects how much you willingly yield to external factors or others’ authority.
   3. Balancing dominance and submissiveness shapes your emotional experience.

Remember, dominance isn’t about dominance over others—it’s about your perceived agency and influence in a situation.

Example

Let’s consider a real-life scenario where the Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance (PAD) model comes into play:

Scenario: Attending a Concert

• Pleasure (Valence):
  1. You’re at a live concert, surrounded by your favorite music and an enthusiastic crowd.
  2. High Pleasure: The music resonates with you, and you feel joy, excitement, and happiness.
  3. Low Pleasure: Perhaps the band isn’t performing well, or the genre isn’t your cup of tea.
• Arousal:
  1. The energy in the venue affects your arousal level.
  2. High Arousal: The pulsating beats, flashing lights, and crowd energy elevate your excitement.
  3. Low Arousal: If it’s a mellow acoustic performance, you might feel more relaxed.
• Dominance:
  1. Your sense of control or submission plays a role.
  2. High Dominance: You’re dancing, singing along, and fully engaged—asserting control over your experience.
  3. Low Dominance: Maybe you’re shy or reserved, observing from the sidelines.

In this concert context, the PAD model helps describe your emotional state. It’s a dynamic interplay of pleasure (liking the music), arousal (energy level), and dominance (your active participation or passivity).

Applications of Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance Model

The PAD model’s initial use was in environmental psychology, suggesting that physical environments influence people through their emotional impact. It has since been applied to various fields:

• Architectural Design (Divers, 2023).
• Website Design (Yang et al., 2020; Martinez & McAndrews, 2021).
• Marketing (Balamoorthy & Pandey, 2019; Yang et al., 2020).

A Few Words by Psychology Fanatic

As we bid farewell to the intricate dance of emotions, let us linger on the Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance (PAD) model—a compass guiding us through the labyrinth of feelings. Experiencing an environment plays out in an emotional theater where pleasure takes center stage, arousal sets the tempo, and dominance directs the actors. Applause echoes when they align, discord when they clash.

Our lives ebb and flow along these dimensions. The thrill of a rollercoaster ride (high arousal), the warmth of a shared secret (pleasure), the quiet surrender to a starlit sky (low dominance)—each note adds richness to our emotional symphony. Embrace it all. Seek joy without fear, arousal without overwhelm, dominance without tyranny. For in this delicate equilibrium, we find resilience, authenticity, and the kaleidoscope of being human.

And so, dear reader, as the curtain falls, remember: emotions are our canvas, and the PAD model, our palette. Paint boldly, blend hues, and create your masterpiece—one heartbeat at a time.

Last Update: April 9, 2026

Associated Concepts

• Hedonic Principle: This is a concept in psychology that suggests that people are motivated to seek pleasure and avoid pain. It is based on the idea that human behavior is driven by the pursuit of positive experiences and the avoidance of negative experiences.
• Learned Helplessness: This is a condition of giving up after repeated failed attempts to overcome adverse events. Helplessness continues even when a clear avenue escape is available. Helplessness is associated with depression.
• Emotional Valence: This refers to the overall positive or negative balance of a feeling affect. When an emotion produces negative affect, we refer to the emotion as having a ‘negative valance.’
• Discrete Emotion Theory: This theory proposes that humans experience a limited set of fundamental emotions, each with distinct biological, physiological, and behavioral characteristics. This perspective posits that these basic emotions, such as joy, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, and surprise, are innate and universal across cultures.
• Cognitive-Arousal Theory: This theory explores the link between cognition, emotion, and physiological arousal. Proposed by Schachter and Singer, it emphasizes the role of cognitive interpretation in shaping emotional experiences.
• Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion: This theory proposes that physiological arousal and emotional experiences occur simultaneously yet independently. It challenges the James-Lange Theory and emphasizes the roles of the thalamus and cerebral cortex. This theory has significantly impacted the study of emotions.
• Emotional Style: Emotional style encompasses our individual ways of experiencing and expressing emotions, influencing our emotional traits, states, and moods. Richard Davidson defines six dimensions of Emotional Style: Outlook, Resilience, Social Intuition, Self-Awareness, Sensitivity to Context, and Attention.

References:

Bakker, I.; Voordt, T.; Vink, P.; Boon, J. (2014). Pleasure, Arousal, Dominance: Mehrabian and Russell revisited. Current Psychology, 33(3), 405-421. DOI: 10.1007/s12144-014-9219-4
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Balamoorthy, S.; Pandey, M. (2019). Colours in advertising and affective responses: the moderating role of gender and optimum stimulation level. International Journal of Applied Management Science, 11(3), 255-276. DOI: 10.1504/IJAMS.2019.100995
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Barrett, Lisa Feldman (2018). How Emotions Are Made: The Secret Life of the Brain. Mariner Books; Illustrated edition. ISBN-10: 1328915433; APA Record: 2017-26294-000
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Divers, E. (2023). Theory to practice: Pleasure‐Arousal‐Dominance (PAD) theory for architectural color design. Color Research & Application, 48(5), 445-452. DOI: 10.1002/col.22847
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Freud, Anna (1937). The Ego and Mechanisms of Defense. ​Routledge; 1st edition. ISBN-10: 1855750384; APA Record: 1947-01454-000
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Koole, Sander L.; Van Dillon, Lotte F.; Shepps, Gal (2017). The Self Regulation of Emotion. In: K. D. Vohs, & R. F. Baumeister (Eds.), Handbook of Self-Regulation: Third Edition: Research, Theory, and Applications. The Guilford Press; Third edition. ISBN-10: 1462533825; APA Record: 2010-24692-000
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Levine, Peter A. (2009). Panic, Biology, and Reason: Giving the Body Its Due. The USA Body Psychotherapy Journal, 2(2), 5-14. (PDF)
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Martinez, B.; McAndrews, L. (2021). The influence of mobile application design features on users’ stickiness intentions as mediated by emotional response. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 49(11), 1497-1511. DOI: 10.1108/IJRDM-06-2020-0232
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Mehrabian, Albert; Russell, J. A. (1974). An approach to environmental psychology (1 ed.). MIT Press. APA Record: 1974-22049-000
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Mehrabian, Albert (1996/2007). Pleasure-arousal-dominance: A general framework for describing and measuring individual differences in Temperament. Current Psychology, 14(4), 261-292. DOI: 10.1007/BF02686918
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Rawn, Cathleen D.; Vohs, Kathleen D. (2017). When People Strive for Self-Harming Goals Sacrificing Personal Health for Interpersonal Success. In: K. D. Vohs, & R. F. Baumeister (Eds.), Handbook of Self-Regulation: Third Edition: Research, Theory, and Applications. The Guilford Press; Third edition. ISBN-10: 1462533825; APA Record: 2010-24692-000
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Van der Kolk, Bessel (2015). The Body Keeps the Score: Brain, Mind, and Body in the Healing of Trauma. Penguin Books; Illustrated edition. ISBN-10: 1101608307; APA Record: 2014-44678-000
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Yang, K., Kim, H.; Zimmerman, J. (2020). Emotional branding on fashion brand websites: harnessing the Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance (P-A-D) model. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 24(4), 555-570. DOI: 10.1108/JFMM-03-2019-0055
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