Understanding Gollwitzer’s Self-Completion Theory

Have you ever felt an intense drive to complete a task, a desire that seems to consume your every thought? This powerful motivation, often leading to focused action and unwavering determination, can be explained by a fascinating psychological theory known as Self-Completion Theory. Proposed by renowned psychologist Peter M. Gollwitzer, this theory delves into the intricate interplay between our self-concept and our behavior.

At the heart of Self-Completion Theory lies the idea that individuals strive to maintain a coherent and positive self-image. When a threat arises to this self-image, such as a failure or a negative feedback, individuals may experience a strong motivation to restore their self-concept. This drive can manifest in various ways, from increased effort and persistence to defensive behaviors and even aggression. By understanding the underlying mechanisms of Self-Completion Theory, we can gain valuable insights into human motivation, goal-directed behavior, and the psychology of success and failure.

Introduction to Self-Completion Theory

Gollwitzer’s self-completion theory is an intriguing psychological concept that explores the relationship between individuals’ goals, their sense of self, and how they strive for personal fulfillment. Proposed by psychologist Peter M. Gollwitzer in the late 1980s, this theory delves into why people pursue certain goals and how their identities influence these pursuits.

Gollwitzer explains:

“We developed self-completion theory to better understand how people strive for self-defining goals or identity goals. Such goals specify the possession of a wanted identity as a desired end state. Self-completion theory proposes that people who strive for certain identity goals can undertake a variety of activities to claim identity-goal progress, because many different actions indicate the possession of the respective identities” (Gollwitzer, 2018).

Robert Wicklund and Gollwitzer explain that people “define themselves as musicians, athletes, etc. by use of indicators of attainment in those activity realms, such as possessing a prestige job, having extensive education, or whatever is recognized by others as indicating progress toward completing the self-definition. The self-completion idea postulates that “when important symbols-indicators of self-definition-are lacking, the person will strive after further, alternative symbols of the self-definition” (Wicklund & Gollwitzer, 1981).

Self-completion theory explores how our identity goals aim for self-completion of perceived self-concepts.

The Core Concepts of Self-Completion Theory

At its heart, Gollwitzer’s self-completion theory posits that individuals have a fundamental need to feel complete and whole in terms of their identity. When a person engages in goal-oriented behavior, they often seek to fulfill aspects of their identity that may feel incomplete or unfulfilled at that moment. This process can be understood through several key components:

Symbolic Self-Completion

Symbolic self-completion theory suggests that individuals seek to acquire and display symbols that are strongly related to their desired self-image. When people feel uncertain or incomplete in a particular aspect of their identity, they may compensate by adopting symbols or behaviors that represent that desired identity.

Gollwitzer, Wickland, and James Hilton wrote that a central assumption inherent to the self-completion notion is that “flaws in the person’s training or performance are ‘covered over’ by what we shall call self-symbolizing behaviors” (Gollwitzer et al., 1982).

For example, a young man who aspires to be a successful athlete but has not yet achieved significant athletic accomplishments may compensate by wearing athletic clothing, listening to sports talk radio, or frequently discussing sports. These behaviors serve as symbolic representations of athletic identity, helping the individual to feel more complete and confident in that area of their life. Lynda Boynton Arthur explains that when the symbols of an identity are “recognized and the identity is validated,” the person experiences completeness because their identity is affirmed (Arthur, 1997).

Symbolic self-completion can manifest in various ways, such as:

• Consumption behaviors: Purchasing products or brands associated with a desired identity.
• Social behaviors: Engaging in activities or seeking out social groups that align with the desired identity.
• Self-presentation: Adopting certain styles of dress, speech, or behavior to convey a specific image.

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By understanding symbolic self-completion, we can gain insights into consumer behavior, social psychology, and the ways in which individuals construct and maintain their self-concepts.

Goal Setting

Gollwitzer explains that in developing the self-completion theory they asked themselves whether individuals who “loudly claim to possess a certain identity (such as being a great father)” do not consider this identity in terms of “a self-concept but rather in terms of the aspired-to identity goal (of wanting to be a great father)” (Gollwitzer, 2018).

Individuals set specific goals based on what they perceive as necessary for achieving a complete sense of self. These goals are not just random aspirations; they are deeply tied to one’s identity and values. However, the goals may take different forms to achieve these self-completion objectives. Since the goal is to validate a perception of a certain identity, the focus can be either working on fundamental attributes consistent with the identity, or to receive social feedback that validates the identity.

In the case of the latter, symbolic validation is sufficient, creating a sense of completion. “I am a great father because my neighbors believe I am a great father.”

Example of Self-Completion Goals

Gollwitzer points to the self-completion goals associated with the identity of a scientist. He explains several identity-relevant activities associated with a self-identity as a scientist.

• engaging in professional duties (e.g., giving lectures, conducting research,
• publishing the obtained findings),
• making positive self-descriptions (e.g., “I discovered the essence of a certain psychological principle!”),
• exerting identity-relevant social influence (e.g., advising students),
• or acquiring respective skills, tools, and material symbols (e.g., programming skills, having fast computers, a large office) (Gollwitzer, 2018).

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Failing to accomplish these identity-relevant tasks creates a sense of incompleteness. Basically the individual may embrace the identity as a scientist but fail to succeed in the general identity-tasks associated with that identity. This creates what Leon Festinger refers to as cognitive dissonance. The self-identified scientist may resort to compensatory, self-symbolizing efforts to restore completeness. This may be accomplished by joining online groups and presenting oneself as a prominent successful scientist, using sophisticated language, or repeatedly telling neighbors that you are a scientist.

Identity Salience

The importance of particular identities plays a crucial role in goal pursuit. When an aspect of one’s identity feels threatened or lacking (for instance, being recognized as competent), individuals will engage more fiercely in behaviors aimed at completing or affirming that part of themselves.

Frederick Thorne explains:

“Self-consistency theory postulates that the concept of self is the core of psychic life, and that all therapeutic efforts should be directed toward a more positive and healthy self-concept with which the person must learn to be self- consistent. Self-consistency theory attempts to maximize cognitive-rational resources in retraining a person to know himself better, to develop a more mature and healthy concept of what he wants to be, and then to train him to behave self-consistently with the primary values of his self concept” (Thorne, 1962).

Joseph LeDoux, a neuroscientist, explains that the main jobs of consciousness is “to keep our life tied together into a coherent story, a self-concept.” It does this by “generating explanations of behavior on the basis of self-image, memories of the past, expectations of the future, the present social situation, and the physical environment in which the behavior is produced” (LeDoux, 2015).

Festinger explained that our opinions and attitudes “tend to exist in clusters that are internally consistent.” However, we have plenty of exceptions to this rule. Festinger theorizes that when such inconsistencies are found to exist, “they capture our interest primarily because they stand in sharp contrast against a background of consistency.” Cognitive dissonance is an antecedent leading to activity that has a goal of dissonance reduction. This works the same way hunger leads to activity (eating) to reduce hunger (Festinger, 1957, p. 1-3).

Social Feedback

Social feedback plays a crucial role in self-completion theory. It’s the social validation or disapproval that can either reinforce or challenge an individual’s self-perception and subsequent behaviors.  

Positive social feedback can:

• Reinforce self-concept: When others recognize and affirm our desired identity, it strengthens our belief in ourselves. This positive reinforcement can motivate us to further pursue the symbolic behaviors associated with that identity.  
• Reduce the need for symbolic completion: If we receive positive social feedback, we may feel less compelled to engage in symbolic behaviors to compensate for perceived deficiencies. Conversely, positive social feedback in response to our symbolic presentations may reduce the need to actually accomplish identity-relevant behaviors.
• Enhance self-esteem: Social approval and validation can boost our self-esteem, making us feel more confident and secure in our identity.

Conversely, negative social feedback can:

• Threaten self-concept: If others question or challenge our desired identity, it can lead to feelings of insecurity and inadequacy.  
• Increase the need for symbolic completion: To counteract negative feedback, individuals may intensify their efforts to acquire and display symbols of their desired identity.  

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In essence, social feedback acts as a powerful regulator of self-completion processes. It shapes our self-perception, influences our behavior, and determines how we respond to threats to our self-concept.

See Feedback Loops for more on this topic

Self-Affirmation

Achieving goals associated with one’s primary identities leads to feelings of completeness and satisfaction—essentially affirming oneself against any perceived deficiencies within those identities. However, self-affirmation is achieved from both identity-relevant goals and symbolic completion goals.

Gollwitzer warns that an enhanced sense of completeness was “found to have negative consequence for actually acting on one’s intentions.” Apparently, when others notice stated “identity-relevant behavioral intention,” the goal of claiming the identity feels like it has already been reached. Consequently, actually “performing the intended behavior becomes less necessary” (Gollwitzer, 2018).

Gollwitzer, Wicklund, and Hilton explain that the sense of progress toward a self-defining goal appears “to be dependent on the acknowledgment of others. We will call this the social reality factor.” They explain that once a person experiences acknowledgement from others of success, the sense of completeness motivates informing more people about it (Gollwitzer et al., 1982).

A sense of self-completion (affirmation) can occur through a variety of ways.

Example of Self Completion

Consider a young adult who aspires to be a professional musician. They’ve spent years practicing their instrument and writing songs, but haven’t yet achieved significant recognition or success. To compensate for this perceived lack of validation, they may:

• Adopt musician symbols: They might start dressing in a particular style associated with musicians, such as leather jackets or band t-shirts.
• Join musician communities: They could actively seek out and participate in online or local music communities, surrounding themselves with like-minded individuals.
• Use musical terminology: They might incorporate music-related jargon into their everyday conversations, even when it’s not strictly necessary.

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By engaging in these behaviors, the aspiring musician is symbolically reinforcing their identity as a musician, even though they may not have yet achieved the level of success they desire. This is a classic example of self-completion theory in action.

Symbols of Success

We see and hear self-completions symbols all around us. Many People drive expensive sports cars not because they like the performance but because they want to broadcast to the watching world that they are successful. An accountant that failed to achieve success at a big firm, hangs his diplomas in prominent spaces, has three titles under his name on the office door, and signs internal emails with descriptive position titles. A neighbor may slip in that he is a scientist in almost every conversation.

I once belonged to a social media group. One of the members was always posting about parenting experiences. She talked about her kids with every post. However, over the six months I belonged to this group, no matter what time of day I logged in, I noticed she was always on-line and interacting with the other group members. While we never can know the complexity behind a behavior, we do know that parenting four young children requires massive amounts of time, focused attention, and patience. This woman’s online behavior appeared, at least from the outside, to conflict with her self presentation as a dedicated care-giver to four young children. Her online presentation drew admiration from others.

In the context of self-completion theory, the social acknowledgement provided a symbolic representation, a social affirmation, creating for her the experience of self-completion, supporting her self-identity as a good parent.

See Emotional Investment in Social Media for more on this topic

Self-Monitoring for Symbolic Affirmations

Understanding this theory, may unveil a hidden force that may interrupt genuine self-improvement. Symbolic representations easily interfere with desired with growth. We unconsciously construct a life to attract desired social feedback to affirm our self-image. In an age of online interactions, we can easily do this without actually becoming who we desire to be.

We must scrutinize personal behaviors aimed at amassing positive feedback validating self-identities that interfere with genuine attainment of the identity we portray. Self-monitoring is a chose, and sometimes painful. If you want to be a good father, do the things that good fathers do; if you want to be a scientist, do the things that scientists do.

Applications and Implications

Understanding Gollwitzer’s self-completion theory has practical implications across various fields:

• Education: Educators can use insights from the theory to motivate students by aligning academic tasks with students’ desired identities (e.g., aspiring scientist, artist). By emphasizing these connections, teachers can help students see relevance beyond mere grades.
• Organizational Behavior: In workplace settings, employers can foster environments where employees’ roles correspond with their professional identities, thus motivating them toward greater productivity and job satisfaction.
• Personal Development: For individuals pursuing personal growth or change (such as weight loss or skill acquisition), recognizing which aspects of their identity are tied to these objectives can bolster commitment and resilience against setbacks.

Challenges and Considerations

While Gollwitzer’s self-completion theory provides valuable insight into motivation and behavior related to goal attainment, it also presents challenges:

• Overemphasis on Identity: Individuals may become overly attached to certain aspects of their identity—leading them to pursue unattainable standards or ignore other important facets necessary for holistic well-being.
• Feedback Sensitivity: Excessive reliance on external validation for confirmation can result in decreased intrinsic motivation when faced with criticism or lackluster support from peers.
• Dynamic Nature of Identity: Identities are not static; they evolve over time based on experiences—and so does the way people relate those changes back to goal-setting processes.

Associated Concepts

• William James’ Theory of Self: James’s theory posits that the self is a dichotomy between the “Me” and the “I.” The “Me” is the empirical self—the self as an object of knowledge. In contrast, the “I” is the pure ego—the self as a subject.
• Self-Presentation Theory: This theory explores the behavior and strategies individuals use to shape the perceptions that others form about them. This theory suggests that individuals strive to convey a favorable impression to others by managing their public image.
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Leon Festinger’s theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and beliefs in harmony and avoid disharmony (or dissonance). This relates to self-concept as individuals strive for consistency within their self-beliefs.
• Self-Verification Theory: This theory suggests individuals have a strong need to confirm their self-concept. This means that people seek out information and experiences that validate their self-perceptions, whether positive or negative.
• Self-Schema: Self-Schemas are the specific cognitive structures or beliefs that individuals hold about themselves in particular areas. They are like building blocks of the self-concept, representing specific aspects of oneself, such as being outgoing, shy, athletic, or intelligent.
• Rogers’ Theory of Self: Rogers’ theory emphasizes the importance of self-concept in the development of an individual’s personality. According to Rogers’ Theory of Self, the self-concept consists of the individual’s perceptions and beliefs about themselves. These beliefs include their abilities, attitudes, and values.
• Self-Discrepancy Theory: This theory proposed by psychologist E. Tory Higgins, suggests that individuals have three specific representations of the self: the actual self, the ideal self, and the ought self. The theory posits that emotional discomfort and negative emotions arise from the gaps or “discrepancies” between these self-representations.

A Few Words by Psychology Fanatic

Gollwitzer’s self-completion theory offers profound insights into human behavior regarding goal setting and achievement through the lens of personal identity completion. By understanding how our pursuits align with our perceptions about ourselves, we gain tools not only for enhancing motivation but also for fostering meaningful engagement in both personal endeavors and social contexts alike. Whether applied within education systems, workplaces, or individual journeys toward fulfillment—the principles derived from this theory continue shaping our understanding of what drives us toward becoming our best selves.

Last Update: September 24, 2025